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Psychology 121 > Chapter 13 > Flashcards

Chapter 13 Flashcards

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1
Q

Developmental psychology

A

The study of how people change and grow over time, physically, mentally, and socially

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2
Q

Socialization

A

The process by which children learn the rules and behaviour expected of them by society

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3
Q

Maturation

A

The sequential unfolding of genetically influenced behaviour & physical characteristics

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4
Q

Stages of prenatal development (3)

A
  1. Germinal
  2. Embryotic
  3. Fetal
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5
Q

Germinal

A

begins at conception, sperm unites with egg (fertilized cell called zygote)

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6
Q

Embryotic

A

begins once implantation of embryo has occurred until 8 weeks after conception

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7
Q

Fetal

A

begins at 8 weeks until birth, further development of organs & systems in fetus

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8
Q

Harmful influences that can cross the placental barrier: (5)

A
  1. German measles (rubella)
  2. X-rays or other radiation & toxic substances such as lead
  3. Sexually transmitted diseases
  4. Cigarette smoking
  5. Regular consumption of alcohol (risk of fetal alcohol syndrome)
  6. Drugs other than alcohol
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9
Q

Motor reflexes

A

automatic behaviours that are necessary for survival (see Table 14.1)

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10
Q

Newborns Perceptual Abilities

A

Newborn’s visual range of focus reflects about the distance between faces of infant & caregiver (~20 cm)
Can discriminate primary caregiver from others very early by sight, smell, and sound

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11
Q

Aspects of development rely on

A

Many aspects of development depend on cultural customs on how babies are held, touched, fed, and talked to
Developmental milestones change quickly with cultural changes in baby-care practices

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12
Q

Attachment theory (Bowlby)

A

Describes the relatively stable pattern of relationships that one forms from birth to death
Attachment begins with contact comfort

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13
Q

Contact comfort

A

The innate pleasure derived from close physical contact; basis of infant’s first attachment

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14
Q

Harlow’s Attachment Study

A
  • Infant monkeys spent more time with soft cuddly “mother” than the “mother” with food
  • Contact comfort was preferred over food
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15
Q

Separation anxiety

A

Distress that most children develop, at about 6-8 months of age, when their primary caregivers temporarily leave them with strangers

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16
Q

Strange Situation Test (Ainsworth)

A

Attachment bonds are studied through this.

Three categories of attachments based on reactions: secure, avoidant, anxious/ambivalent

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17
Q

Cultural variations

A
  • Those in more communal cultures showed less anxiety

- Attached to many adults at same time

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18
Q

Securely attached

A

Babies cry or protest if the parent leaves the room, but welcome her back and play happily again

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19
Q

Insecurely attached

A

Avoidant and Anxious or ambivalent

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20
Q

Avoidant

A

not caring if mother leaves the room, makes little effort to seek contact when she returns

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21
Q

Anxious or ambivalent

A

resisting contact with the mother at reunion but protesting loudly when she leave

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22
Q

Ainsworth believed that secure attachment depended on maternal sensitivity, but it did not consider.. (3)

A
  • Children who attach to many adults may not panic when their mothers leave (Strange Situation) because they are comfortable with strangers
  • Most children develop secure attachment despite differences in child-rearing practices
  • Time spent on daycare has no effect on the security of the child’s attachment
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23
Q

Factors that promote insecure attachments (4)

A
  1. Abandonment and deprivation in the first two years of life
  2. Parenting that is abusive, neglectful, or erratic because the parent is chronically irresponsible or depressed
  3. The child’s own genetically influenced temperament
  4. Stressful circumstances in the child’s family
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24
Q

Language acquisition

A

A milestone of cognitive development
Begins in the first few months (responsive to pitch, intensity, sound)
Continues in rapid progression

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25
Q

Parentese

A

adult use of baby talk, pitch is higher and more varied than usual, exaggerated intonation, emphasis on vowels

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26
Q

Milestones (6)

A
  • 16 mos: babbling (ba-ba)
  • 10 mos : recognize same word spoken by different people
  • 12 mos : begin to name things and gesture
  • 18 mos- 2 yrs: telegraphic speech (2 – 3 word combinations)
  • 2 yrs: learn syntax
  • 6 yrs : vocabulary of 8000 - 14,000 words
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27
Q

Assimilation

A

the process of absorbing new information into existing cognitive structures

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28
Q

Accommodation

A

the process of modifying existing cognitive structures in response to experiences

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29
Q

Stages of cognitive development

A
  1. Sensorimotor Stage (birth to age two)
  2. Preoperational Stage (ages 2-7)
  3. Concrete Operational Stage (ages 7-12)
  4. Formal Operational Stage (12-adult)
30
Q

Sensorimotor Stage (birth-2)

A
  • Learning through concrete actions
  • Coordinates sensory information with bodily movement
  • Major accomplishment is object permanence (The understanding that an object continues to exist even when you cannot see or touch it)
31
Q

Preoperational Stage (ages 2-7)

A

Focused on limitations in children’s thinking

  • Children lack ability to engage in mental operations
  • Engage in egocentric thinking (inability to take another person’s perspective)
  • Cannot grasp concept of conservation (understanding that physical properties of objects can remain the same even when their form or appearance changes)
32
Q

Concrete Operational Stage (ages 7-12)

A

Earlier limitations overcome but primarily with concrete information
Continue to make errors in reasoning about abstract concepts
Understand principles of conservation, reversibility, cause and effect

33
Q

Formal Operational Stage (12-adult)

A

Teenagers become capable of abstract reasoning
Ideas/concepts can be compared and classified just like objects
Can formulate hypotheses, test ideas, search for answers to solve problems

34
Q

Vygotsky

A

emphasized socio-cultural influences on cognitive development in children

35
Q

Private speech

A

how children talk to themselves to direct their own behaviour (Over time, private speech becomes internalized and silent)

36
Q

Current views on cognitive development (4)

A
  1. Cognitive abilities develop in continuous, overlapping waves rather than discrete stages
  2. Preschoolers are not as egocentric as Piaget thought
  3. Children, even infants, reveal cognitive abilities much earlier than Piaget believed possible
  4. Cognitive development is influenced by a child’s culture
37
Q

Moral development

A

Children’s ability to understand right from wrong (reasoning about moral dilemmas) evolves with cognitive (Kohlberg)

38
Q

Methods used to enforce moral standards

A

Power assertion and Induction

39
Q

Power assertion

A

parent uses punishment and authority to correct child’s misbehaviour

40
Q

Induction

A

parent appeals to child’s own resources, abilities, sense of responsibility, and feelings for others in correcting the child’s misbehaviour (more of a teaching method)

41
Q

self-regulation

A

One of most important social-emotional skills children need to acquire as it helps with the development of a conscience

  • The ability to suppress their initial wish to do something in favour of doing something else that is not as much fun
  • Predicts ability to delay gratification, control negative emotions, pay attention to task at hand, and do well in school
42
Q

Gender Identity

A
  • The fundamental sense of being male or female

- Independent of whether a person conforms to the social and cultural rules of gender

43
Q

Gender Typing

A

The process by which children learn the abilities, interests, and behaviours associated with being masculine or feminine in their culture

44
Q

Intersex conditions

A

condition occurring where chromosomal or hormonal anomalies cause a child to be born with ambiguous genitals or genitals that conflict with chromosomes

45
Q

Transgender

A

term describing category of people who do not fit comfortably into usual categories of male & female

46
Q

Biological influences of gender development

A

Early play and toy preferences have a basis in prenatal hormones (i.e., androgens), genes, or brain organization

47
Q

Cognitive influences on gender developments

A

Toy preferences are based on gender schemas
Early recognition that there are two sexes (faces)
Change behaviours to conform to category they label themselves as

48
Q

Learning influences on gender development

A
  • Gender socialization instills messages about what boys & girls are supposed to do (Signals provided very early on as to how to treat the child based on actions, clothing, portrayals)
  • Gender appropriate play may be reinforced by parents, teachers, and peers
  • Beliefs about “natural” talents for males & females also expressed
49
Q

Influences on Gender Development

A

biological, cognitive, and learning

50
Q

Adolescence

A
  • Period of development between puberty and adulthood
  • Culture variations in the duration of adolescence according to when youth are expected to assume adult responsibilities
51
Q

Puberty

A
  • Age a person becomes capable of sexual reproduction

- Onset depends on genetic & environmental factors

52
Q

Females (puberty)

A

Development of breasts

Menarche: onset of menstruation (depends on critical level of body fat for onset)

53
Q

Males (puberty)

A

Onset of nocturnal emissions & growth of testes, scrotum, and penis

54
Q

Secondary characteristics

A

Hormones are involved in the emergence of these. (e.g. pubic hair)

55
Q

Early maturing males

A

early maturers have more positive view of body, and are typically more athletic. Also more likely to smoke, drink alcohol, use other drugs, and break the law

56
Q

Early maturing females

A

early maturers are more socially popular, perceived as more sexually precocious, more likely to fight with parent, drop out of school, have negative body image, and be angry or depressed

57
Q

U.S. Supreme Court banned execution of juveniles under the age of 18 in 2005 because (3)

A
  • Basis of decision was that brains are still neurologically immature
  • Synaptic pruning still occurring in prefrontal cortex (linked to impulse control & planning) and limbic system (emotional processing)
  • Full neurological & cognitive maturity not reached until around 25
58
Q

Common problems with adolescents

A

conflict with parents, mood swings & depression, and higher rates of risky behaviour

59
Q

Adulthood

A

Lifespan approach to psychological development proposed by Erikson

60
Q

Erikson

A
  • Argued that adults go through stages just like children do
  • Each stage characterized by a challenge or “crisis” that should be resolved
  • Recognized that cultural and economic factors affect people’s development through these stages
61
Q

Eriksons Stages

A
  1. Trust versus mistrust (0-1)
  2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt (1-2)
  3. Initiative versus guilt (3-5)
  4. Competence versus inferiority (6-12)
  5. Identity versus role confusion (13-19) Involves identity crisis
  6. Intimacy versus isolation (20-40)
  7. Generativity versus stagnation 40-65)
  8. Ego integrity versus despair (65+)
62
Q

Transitions in life

A
  • Transitions & events tend to occur at particular times in life
  • People often face unexpected transitions (e.g., loss of job), or changes they expect to happen but do not (e.g., not getting married)
  • Emerging adulthood, middle years, and old age
63
Q

Emerging Adulthood

A

Phase of life of many young people aged 18-25 who are in college or university and at least partially dependent financially on their parents (In some ways, consider themselves to have reached adulthood but, in other ways, are not yet adults)

64
Q

The Middle Years (35-65)

A
  • Usually associated with the prime of life, involvement & reflection
  • Crises related to specific life-changing and not aging
65
Q

Menopause

A

the cessation of menstruation and of the production of ova; it is usually a gradual process lasting up to several years

66
Q

Old Age

A

Some cognitive functions decline with age (but not all)

  • Apparent senility in the elderly is often caused by the combination of medications, and malnutrition
  • Weakness & frailty are caused by sedentary lifestyles
  • Depression and passivity may result from loss of meaningful activity, intellectual stimulation, and control over events
  • Aerobic exercise & strength training are protective factors
67
Q

Gerontologists

A

researchers who study aging and the old

68
Q

Fluid intelligence

A

capacity for deductive reasoning & ability to use new information to solve problems; tends to decline in old age

69
Q

Crystallized intelligence

A

cognitive skills and specific knowledge of information acquired over a lifetime; tends to remain stable over the lifetime

70
Q

Wellsprings of Resilience

A

Assumption that early childhood trauma has long-lasting negative effects (incorrect)

71
Q

Why are assumptions of childhood trauma wrong

A
  • Research indicates that most children are disordered following trauma following trauma
  • Recovering from adversity is not as rare as previously believed
  • Powerful aspect of resilience is that we are constantly interpreting our experiences
72
Q

Parenting tips

A
  • Set high expectations that are appropriate to the child’s age and temperament, and teach the child how to meet them
  • Explain why you have applied rules
  • Encourage empathy
  • Notice, approve of, and reward good behaviour
  • Don’t oversimplify

Psychology 121 (10 decks)

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