Chapter 13 Flashcards
Developmental psychology
The study of how people change and grow over time, physically, mentally, and socially
Socialization
The process by which children learn the rules and behaviour expected of them by society
Maturation
The sequential unfolding of genetically influenced behaviour & physical characteristics
Stages of prenatal development (3)
- Germinal
- Embryotic
- Fetal
Germinal
begins at conception, sperm unites with egg (fertilized cell called zygote)
Embryotic
begins once implantation of embryo has occurred until 8 weeks after conception
Fetal
begins at 8 weeks until birth, further development of organs & systems in fetus
Harmful influences that can cross the placental barrier: (5)
- German measles (rubella)
- X-rays or other radiation & toxic substances such as lead
- Sexually transmitted diseases
- Cigarette smoking
- Regular consumption of alcohol (risk of fetal alcohol syndrome)
- Drugs other than alcohol
Motor reflexes
automatic behaviours that are necessary for survival (see Table 14.1)
Newborns Perceptual Abilities
Newborn’s visual range of focus reflects about the distance between faces of infant & caregiver (~20 cm)
Can discriminate primary caregiver from others very early by sight, smell, and sound
Aspects of development rely on
Many aspects of development depend on cultural customs on how babies are held, touched, fed, and talked to
Developmental milestones change quickly with cultural changes in baby-care practices
Attachment theory (Bowlby)
Describes the relatively stable pattern of relationships that one forms from birth to death
Attachment begins with contact comfort
Contact comfort
The innate pleasure derived from close physical contact; basis of infant’s first attachment
Harlow’s Attachment Study
- Infant monkeys spent more time with soft cuddly “mother” than the “mother” with food
- Contact comfort was preferred over food
Separation anxiety
Distress that most children develop, at about 6-8 months of age, when their primary caregivers temporarily leave them with strangers
Strange Situation Test (Ainsworth)
Attachment bonds are studied through this.
Three categories of attachments based on reactions: secure, avoidant, anxious/ambivalent
Cultural variations
- Those in more communal cultures showed less anxiety
- Attached to many adults at same time
Securely attached
Babies cry or protest if the parent leaves the room, but welcome her back and play happily again
Insecurely attached
Avoidant and Anxious or ambivalent
Avoidant
not caring if mother leaves the room, makes little effort to seek contact when she returns
Anxious or ambivalent
resisting contact with the mother at reunion but protesting loudly when she leave
Ainsworth believed that secure attachment depended on maternal sensitivity, but it did not consider.. (3)
- Children who attach to many adults may not panic when their mothers leave (Strange Situation) because they are comfortable with strangers
- Most children develop secure attachment despite differences in child-rearing practices
- Time spent on daycare has no effect on the security of the child’s attachment
Factors that promote insecure attachments (4)
- Abandonment and deprivation in the first two years of life
- Parenting that is abusive, neglectful, or erratic because the parent is chronically irresponsible or depressed
- The child’s own genetically influenced temperament
- Stressful circumstances in the child’s family
Language acquisition
A milestone of cognitive development
Begins in the first few months (responsive to pitch, intensity, sound)
Continues in rapid progression
Parentese
adult use of baby talk, pitch is higher and more varied than usual, exaggerated intonation, emphasis on vowels
Milestones (6)
- 16 mos: babbling (ba-ba)
- 10 mos : recognize same word spoken by different people
- 12 mos : begin to name things and gesture
- 18 mos- 2 yrs: telegraphic speech (2 – 3 word combinations)
- 2 yrs: learn syntax
- 6 yrs : vocabulary of 8000 - 14,000 words
Assimilation
the process of absorbing new information into existing cognitive structures
Accommodation
the process of modifying existing cognitive structures in response to experiences
Stages of cognitive development
- Sensorimotor Stage (birth to age two)
- Preoperational Stage (ages 2-7)
- Concrete Operational Stage (ages 7-12)
- Formal Operational Stage (12-adult)
Sensorimotor Stage (birth-2)
- Learning through concrete actions
- Coordinates sensory information with bodily movement
- Major accomplishment is object permanence (The understanding that an object continues to exist even when you cannot see or touch it)
Preoperational Stage (ages 2-7)
Focused on limitations in children’s thinking
- Children lack ability to engage in mental operations
- Engage in egocentric thinking (inability to take another person’s perspective)
- Cannot grasp concept of conservation (understanding that physical properties of objects can remain the same even when their form or appearance changes)
Concrete Operational Stage (ages 7-12)
Earlier limitations overcome but primarily with concrete information
Continue to make errors in reasoning about abstract concepts
Understand principles of conservation, reversibility, cause and effect
Formal Operational Stage (12-adult)
Teenagers become capable of abstract reasoning
Ideas/concepts can be compared and classified just like objects
Can formulate hypotheses, test ideas, search for answers to solve problems
Vygotsky
emphasized socio-cultural influences on cognitive development in children
Private speech
how children talk to themselves to direct their own behaviour (Over time, private speech becomes internalized and silent)
Current views on cognitive development (4)
- Cognitive abilities develop in continuous, overlapping waves rather than discrete stages
- Preschoolers are not as egocentric as Piaget thought
- Children, even infants, reveal cognitive abilities much earlier than Piaget believed possible
- Cognitive development is influenced by a child’s culture
Moral development
Children’s ability to understand right from wrong (reasoning about moral dilemmas) evolves with cognitive (Kohlberg)
Methods used to enforce moral standards
Power assertion and Induction
Power assertion
parent uses punishment and authority to correct child’s misbehaviour
Induction
parent appeals to child’s own resources, abilities, sense of responsibility, and feelings for others in correcting the child’s misbehaviour (more of a teaching method)
self-regulation
One of most important social-emotional skills children need to acquire as it helps with the development of a conscience
- The ability to suppress their initial wish to do something in favour of doing something else that is not as much fun
- Predicts ability to delay gratification, control negative emotions, pay attention to task at hand, and do well in school
Gender Identity
- The fundamental sense of being male or female
- Independent of whether a person conforms to the social and cultural rules of gender
Gender Typing
The process by which children learn the abilities, interests, and behaviours associated with being masculine or feminine in their culture
Intersex conditions
condition occurring where chromosomal or hormonal anomalies cause a child to be born with ambiguous genitals or genitals that conflict with chromosomes
Transgender
term describing category of people who do not fit comfortably into usual categories of male & female
Biological influences of gender development
Early play and toy preferences have a basis in prenatal hormones (i.e., androgens), genes, or brain organization
Cognitive influences on gender developments
Toy preferences are based on gender schemas
Early recognition that there are two sexes (faces)
Change behaviours to conform to category they label themselves as
Learning influences on gender development
- Gender socialization instills messages about what boys & girls are supposed to do (Signals provided very early on as to how to treat the child based on actions, clothing, portrayals)
- Gender appropriate play may be reinforced by parents, teachers, and peers
- Beliefs about “natural” talents for males & females also expressed
Influences on Gender Development
biological, cognitive, and learning
Adolescence
- Period of development between puberty and adulthood
- Culture variations in the duration of adolescence according to when youth are expected to assume adult responsibilities
Puberty
- Age a person becomes capable of sexual reproduction
- Onset depends on genetic & environmental factors
Females (puberty)
Development of breasts
Menarche: onset of menstruation (depends on critical level of body fat for onset)
Males (puberty)
Onset of nocturnal emissions & growth of testes, scrotum, and penis
Secondary characteristics
Hormones are involved in the emergence of these. (e.g. pubic hair)
Early maturing males
early maturers have more positive view of body, and are typically more athletic. Also more likely to smoke, drink alcohol, use other drugs, and break the law
Early maturing females
early maturers are more socially popular, perceived as more sexually precocious, more likely to fight with parent, drop out of school, have negative body image, and be angry or depressed
U.S. Supreme Court banned execution of juveniles under the age of 18 in 2005 because (3)
- Basis of decision was that brains are still neurologically immature
- Synaptic pruning still occurring in prefrontal cortex (linked to impulse control & planning) and limbic system (emotional processing)
- Full neurological & cognitive maturity not reached until around 25
Common problems with adolescents
conflict with parents, mood swings & depression, and higher rates of risky behaviour
Adulthood
Lifespan approach to psychological development proposed by Erikson
Erikson
- Argued that adults go through stages just like children do
- Each stage characterized by a challenge or “crisis” that should be resolved
- Recognized that cultural and economic factors affect people’s development through these stages
Eriksons Stages
- Trust versus mistrust (0-1)
- Autonomy versus shame and doubt (1-2)
- Initiative versus guilt (3-5)
- Competence versus inferiority (6-12)
- Identity versus role confusion (13-19) Involves identity crisis
- Intimacy versus isolation (20-40)
- Generativity versus stagnation 40-65)
- Ego integrity versus despair (65+)
Transitions in life
- Transitions & events tend to occur at particular times in life
- People often face unexpected transitions (e.g., loss of job), or changes they expect to happen but do not (e.g., not getting married)
- Emerging adulthood, middle years, and old age
Emerging Adulthood
Phase of life of many young people aged 18-25 who are in college or university and at least partially dependent financially on their parents (In some ways, consider themselves to have reached adulthood but, in other ways, are not yet adults)
The Middle Years (35-65)
- Usually associated with the prime of life, involvement & reflection
- Crises related to specific life-changing and not aging
Menopause
the cessation of menstruation and of the production of ova; it is usually a gradual process lasting up to several years
Old Age
Some cognitive functions decline with age (but not all)
- Apparent senility in the elderly is often caused by the combination of medications, and malnutrition
- Weakness & frailty are caused by sedentary lifestyles
- Depression and passivity may result from loss of meaningful activity, intellectual stimulation, and control over events
- Aerobic exercise & strength training are protective factors
Gerontologists
researchers who study aging and the old
Fluid intelligence
capacity for deductive reasoning & ability to use new information to solve problems; tends to decline in old age
Crystallized intelligence
cognitive skills and specific knowledge of information acquired over a lifetime; tends to remain stable over the lifetime
Wellsprings of Resilience
Assumption that early childhood trauma has long-lasting negative effects (incorrect)
Why are assumptions of childhood trauma wrong
- Research indicates that most children are disordered following trauma following trauma
- Recovering from adversity is not as rare as previously believed
- Powerful aspect of resilience is that we are constantly interpreting our experiences
Parenting tips
- Set high expectations that are appropriate to the child’s age and temperament, and teach the child how to meet them
- Explain why you have applied rules
- Encourage empathy
- Notice, approve of, and reward good behaviour
- Don’t oversimplify
