Chapter 12 Flashcards
Motivation
An inferred process within a person or animal that causes movement either toward a goal or away from an unpleasant situation. Can come from biological drives and more.
Drives
biological urges, such as those to acquire food & water, to have sex, to seek novelty, and to avoid cold and pain
Intrinsic motivation
the pursuit of an activity for its own sake and the pleasure it brings
Extrinsic motivation
the pursuit of an activity for external rewards, such as money or fame
The Biology of Weight
- Research does NOT support the idea that people who are overweight are emotionally disturbed
- Heaviness not always caused by overeating
- Biological mechanisms regulate your body weight & are influenced by genetics
Set point
-Genetically influenced weight range for an individual (maintained by biological mechanisms that regulate food intake, fat reserves, and metabolism)
Varies about 10% in either direction
-Associated with high levels of heritability
-Related to genetically programmed basal metabolism rate
Genetic Obesity
Mutations in the ob gene may cause obesity in some individuals
Ob Gene
- Causes fat cells to secure protein called leptin that acts on the hypothalamus and helps to regulate appetite
- Levels of leptin most critical in early life as sets the brain chemistry involved with eating
Prevalence of obesity in Canada
Approximately 26% of women & 35% of men
Has been increasing over the years
Can’t be accounted for solely by genetics
Is it weight or fitness?
Many researchers believe that individuals who are overweight and physically fit are actually healthier than individuals who are sedentary and thin
Lack of fitness related to greater health risks
Environmental Influences on Weight (5)
- Increased abundance of fast food
- Consumption of high-calorie soft drinks
- Decline of exercise and other expenditures of energy
- Increased portion sizes of food and drink
- Abundance of highly varied foods
Culture of Consumption
Eating habits & activity levels shaped by customs and standards of ideal body
- Fat may be sign of health & affluence in men; sexual desirability in women
- English Canadians hold negative attitudes towards obese people
Culture & the Ideal Body (4)
- Cultural ideals for women have been getting thinner, with large breasts but no hips
- Cultural ideals for men are to have strong, muscular bodies
- Changes in body norms shift with gender and social roles (e.g., woman’s role being home or work?)
- Differences in weight satisfaction between men & women influence weight norm
Anorexia
An eating disorder characterized by fear of being fat, a distorted body image, radically reduced consumption of food, and emaciation
Bulimia
An eating disorder characterized by episodes of excessive eating (bingeing) followed by forced vomiting or use of laxatives (purging)
Types of Love (2)
Passionate (romantic) and Companionate
Passionate (romantic) love
Love characterized by a whirlwind of intense emotions and sexual passion
It is the stuff of crushes, infatuations, “love at first sight”, and the early stage of love affairs
Companionate love
Love characterized by affection and trust
Endorphins
Chemical substances in the nervous system that are similar in structure and action to opiates; they are involved in pain reduction, pleasure, and memory and are known technically as endogenous opioid peptides.
Proximity effect
the people who are nearest to you geographically are most likely to be dearest to you too (long distance relationships worse outlook on relationship)
Similarity effect
similarity in looks, attitudes, beliefs, values, personality, and interests, is attractive to human beings
Attachment theory of love involves 3 types. What are they?
secure, avoidant, and anxious
Secure
rarely jealous, compassionate, helpful (64%)
Avoidant
distrust others and avoid intimate attachments (25%)
Anxious
agitated in relationships, clingy, fear partners will leave them (11%)
Men and women do differ in how they express love
Males more likely to express love in actions
Women more likely to express love in words
Motives for sex
Human sexuality influenced by biological, psychological, and cultural factors.
Canadian sex statistics
- Canadian culture relatively sexually active
- Canadians have sex at earlier ages than teens in other countries
- Average Canadian adult has sex around 150 times a year
Testosterone
promotes sexual desire in both sexes, but relationship unclear
Studies of orgasm have indicated
- Men and women are sexually similar but women have lesser sexual capacity (Kinsey)
- Physiological changes during sexual arousal and orgasm similar in both sexes, but female sexual capacity greater due to ability to have multiple orgasms (Masters & Johnson)
Males (biological sexual wiring)
wiring for sex overlaps with dominance and aggression
Females (biological sexual wiring)
wiring for sex overlaps with nurturance
Sex Drive
- Hormones and brain involved in sexual behaviour differ between sexes
- Other researchers argue that differences in sexuality stem from roles and expectations
Six primary psychological motives for sex
- Pleasure
- Intimacy
- Insecurity
- Partner approval
- Peer approval
- Attaining a goal
* *Men endorse these motives more than women, except for intimacy (both sexes the same)
Sexual Assault Reports
- Only 6% of sexual assaults in Canada are reported to police, yet rates of victimization among undergraduates may be around 29%
- Most victims know their attackers, definitions of sexual coercion differ between men and women
What causes some men to rape?
Narcissism toward women
A desire to dominate, humiliate, or punish the victim
Sadism
Cultures transmit rules & regulations about sex to members by:
gender roles and sexual scripts
Gender roles
Collections of rules that determine the proper attitudes and behaviour for men and women
Sexual scripts
Set of implicit rules that specify proper sexual behaviour for a person in a given situation, varying with the person’s gender, age, religion, social status, and peer group
Arguments for gender, vulture and sex
- Evolutionary psychologists argue that gender roles & sexual scripts shaped by natural selection
- Social & cultural psychologists argue these reflect a culture’s economic, demographic, & social arrangements
Reasons for sexual partner choice
proximity (availability) & similarity
Biology and Sexual Orientation
- Psychological explanations for homosexuality unsupported
- Homosexual behaviour documented in over 450 species and may be somewhat heritable in men
- Difficult to find origin of sexual orientation as behaviour and sexual identity are not strongly correlated
- Biological factors cannot account for cultural diversity among sexual customs
Biological inquiries of sexual orientation have involved
- Prenatal exposure to androgens
- The “brother effect”
- Male & female odours that activate sexual response system in hypothalamus
Pros and cons to finding a biological cause for sexual orientation
Pro: would make it a product of nature not choice
Con: people against homosexuality will perceive it as a biological defect that should be eradicated
Why are we motivated to work?
Motivated by a need for achievement
Need for Achievement
- A learned motive to meet personal standards of success and excellence in a chosen area
- Originally measured by variation of the projective Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
There are additional motives that lead us to certain accomplishments (8)
- Security
- Duty
- Excellence
- Greed
- Immortality
- Truth
- Justice
- Autonomy
A goal is likely to improve motivation & performance when (3)
- The goal is specific
- The goal is challenging but achievable
- The goal is framed in terms of getting what you want rather than avoiding what you do not want
E.g., Approach goals, Avoidance goals
Approach goals
Goals framed in terms of desired outcomes or experiences, such as passing a class
Avoidance goals
Goals framed in terms of avoiding unpleasant experiences, such as trying not to fail a class
Types of Goals
Performance and Mastery
Performance goals
Concerned primarily with being judged favourably and avoiding criticism e.g. pleasing a teacher or parent, fame
Mastery (learning) goals
Concerned with increasing their competence and skills and finding intrinsic pleasure in what they are learning e.g. pleasing yourself, you want to learn
Type of goal will affect how person deals with failure
Mastery goals: -Individual tries harder Performance goals: -Individual stops trying to improve
Self-fulfilling prophecy
Expectations cause you to behave in ways to make the expectation come true
E.g. you will do well if you think you will do well
Self-efficiency
Level of confidence in being able to succeed
-Influences ability to cope with problems
How does the work that we do & the conditions that we do it in nurture or crush our motivation to succeed?
- Environmental factors are key
- Working conditions may increase work motivation and satisfaction, and reduce the chances of emotional burnout
Opportunities to Achieve
Working condition that affects achievement is having the opportunity to achieve
- Failures at work often attributed to lack of internal drives, but may not have been given fair chance to succeed - Gender biases in occupations may influence motivations to work in particular fields
Good Working Conditions (7)
- The work feels meaningful & important to employees
- Employees have control over many aspects of their work
- Tasks are varied rather than repetitive
- The company maintains clear & consistent rules
- Employees have supportive relationships with their superiors and co-workers
- Employees receive useful feedback about their work so they know accomplishments and areas of improvement
- The company offers opportunities for employees to learn & advance
Work motivation in regards to salary
Surprisingly, work motivation is not related to the amount of money you get, but how and when you get paid
Incentive pay
bonuses that are given upon completion of a goal rather than as an automatic raise
Work motivation
Work motivation & satisfaction depend on the right fit between qualities of the individual and conditions of the work
Motives, Values, & Well-Being
- People motivated by intrinsic satisfaction of activities are happier than those motivated by extrinsic rewards only
- Intrinsic motivation can be influenced by the goals we set for ourselves
- Goals are determined by our values about what is important in life (family values vs employers giving overtime)
- Emotional stress may arise when the goals and values you choose are in conflict
Three Motivational Conflicts
- Approach-approach conflicts
- Avoidance-avoidance conflicts
- Approach-avoidance conflicts
Approach-approach conflicts
Conflicts that occur when you are equally attracted to two or more possible goals (2 things you want to do but you have to choose)
Avoidance-avoidance conflicts
Conflicts that require you to choose the lesser of two evils because you dislike both alternatives (2 things you don’t want to do but you have to choose)
Approach-avoidance conflict
Conflicts that occur when a single activity or goal has both a positive and a negative aspect (something with pros and cons)
Maslow’s hierarchy of Needs
- Need for self-actualization (top level)
- Esteem needs: self- and other -respect
- Social needs: belonging, affection
- Security needs: shelter, safety
- Survival needs: food, sleep, water (bottom level)
Top four psychological needs among students were found to be (4)
- Autonomy
- Competence
- Relatedness
- Self-esteem
Autonomy
feeling that you are making choices based on true interests and values
Competence
feeling able to master challenges
Relatedness
reeling close to others who are important to you
Self-esteem
having self-respect
Attaining your goals
- Seek activities that are intrinsically pleasurable
- Focus on learning goals, not only on performance goals
- Assess your working conditions
- Take steps to resolve motivational conflicts
