Chapter 8 - Thinking, Reasoning, and Language Flashcards
Thinking
any mental activity or processing of information, including learning, remembering, perceiving, communicating, believing, and deciding
Cognitive Miser
one who invests little mental energy as possible unless necessary to do more
When can cognitive economy get us in trouble?
when it leads us to oversimplify and draw faulty conclusions
Heuristic
mental shortcut
What does cognitive economy allow?
us to keep decision making information to a minimum
Cognitive Bias
systematic error in thinking
Representativeness Heuristic
heuristic that involves judging the probability of an event by its superficial similarity to a prototype
Example of Representativeness Heuristic
making an assumption that a shy, awkward, tournament chess player is a math major rather than psychology major
Representativeness Heuristic involves…
stereotypes
Base Rate
generally how common a behaviour or characteristic is
Availability Heuristic
heuristic that involves estimating the likelihood of an occurrence based on the ease with which it comes to our minds
Example of Availability Heuristic
when asked if there are more trees on your campus or downtown you’d probably say your campus more often
Availability Heuristic is a major factor in… Why?
estimating risks of dangerous activities because the media covers more dramatic risks than real ones
Hindsight Bias
our tendency to overestimate how well we could have predicted something after it has already occurred
Hindsight Bias aka “___________” effect
I knew it all along
Example of Hindsight Bias
reading a poem and realizing it fits well with a topic after being told which topic suits it
Conformation Bias
our tendency to seek out evidence that supports our hypotheses and deny or dismiss evidence that doesn’t
What helps us overcome bias in research?
scientific methods
Top-Down Processing
filling in the gaps of missing information using our experiences and background knowledge
Bottom-Up Processing
our brain processes the information only it receives to construct understanding through experience
Concepts
our knowledge and ideas about a set of objects, actions, and characteristics that share core properties
Schemas
concepts we’ve stored in memory about how certain actions, objects, and ideas related to each other
Linguistic Determinism
view that all thought is represented verbally and that, as a result, our language defines our thinking
Linguistic Relativity
view that characteristic of language shape our thought processes
Higher-Order Cognition
aspects of thinking that require us to integrate the basic aspects of cognition (perception, knowledge, memory, language, reasoning) into a plan of action
Decision Making
the process of selecting among a set of possible alternatives
When making small decisions we often weigh the considerations…
quickly and below conscious awareness
Small decision making involves system __ thinking which is…
1; rapid and intuitive
Large decision making involves system __ thinking which is…
2; slow and analytical
Paralysis by Analysis
when our brains become overwhelmed by excessive information, like making a pros and cons list
Framing
the way a question is formulated that can influence the decisions people make
Neuroeconomics
study of how the brain works when making financial decisions
Problem Solving
generating a cognitive strategy to accomplish a goal
Algorithm
step-by-step learned procedure used to solve a problem
When are algorithms useful?
in problems that require the same basic steps to solve them (ie. making a PB & J sandwich)
Algorithms are inflexible meaning…
when something changes you would likely get stuck
Subproblems
a problem-solving strategy that involves breaking the problem down into easy to solve chunks
Reasoning from related examples
a problem-solving strategy that involves using prior information to fill in gaps
Analogies
used to solve problems with similar structures using comparison
Salience of Surface Similarities
focusing our attention on surface level properties of a problem and solving that problem the same way we did one similar
Salience
how attention grabbing something is
Focusing on underlying reasoning makes solving problems more ________.
challenging
Mental Set
phenomenon of becoming stuck in a specific problem-solving strategy, inhibiting our ability to generate alternatives (THINKING IN THE BOX)
Breaking free of the mental set involves which parts of the brain?
frontal and parietal lobes which inhibit previous responses and allow new strategies to be formed
Functional Fixedness
difficulty conceptualizing that an object typically used for one purpose can be used for another
What can humans do that computers can’t?
account for contexts and draw subtle inferences (top-down processing difficulty)
Computer Model of the Mind
model adopted to explain how the mind processes information like running data through a computer program
Embodiment Model of the Mind
shows that the brains sensory areas become activated when people think about objects, actions, and events