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psyc 105 - introductory psychology ii > Chapter 8 - Thinking, Reasoning, and Language > Flashcards

Chapter 8 - Thinking, Reasoning, and Language Flashcards

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1
Q

Thinking

A

any mental activity or processing of information, including learning, remembering, perceiving, communicating, believing, and deciding

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2
Q

Cognitive Miser

A

one who invests little mental energy as possible unless necessary to do more

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3
Q

When can cognitive economy get us in trouble?

A

when it leads us to oversimplify and draw faulty conclusions

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4
Q

Heuristic

A

mental shortcut

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5
Q

What does cognitive economy allow?

A

us to keep decision making information to a minimum

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6
Q

Cognitive Bias

A

systematic error in thinking

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7
Q

Representativeness Heuristic

A

heuristic that involves judging the probability of an event by its superficial similarity to a prototype

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8
Q

Example of Representativeness Heuristic

A

making an assumption that a shy, awkward, tournament chess player is a math major rather than psychology major

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9
Q

Representativeness Heuristic involves…

A

stereotypes

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10
Q

Base Rate

A

generally how common a behaviour or characteristic is

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11
Q

Availability Heuristic

A

heuristic that involves estimating the likelihood of an occurrence based on the ease with which it comes to our minds

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12
Q

Example of Availability Heuristic

A

when asked if there are more trees on your campus or downtown you’d probably say your campus more often

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13
Q

Availability Heuristic is a major factor in… Why?

A

estimating risks of dangerous activities because the media covers more dramatic risks than real ones

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14
Q

Hindsight Bias

A

our tendency to overestimate how well we could have predicted something after it has already occurred

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15
Q

Hindsight Bias aka “___________” effect

A

I knew it all along

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16
Q

Example of Hindsight Bias

A

reading a poem and realizing it fits well with a topic after being told which topic suits it

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17
Q

Conformation Bias

A

our tendency to seek out evidence that supports our hypotheses and deny or dismiss evidence that doesn’t

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18
Q

What helps us overcome bias in research?

A

scientific methods

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19
Q

Top-Down Processing

A

filling in the gaps of missing information using our experiences and background knowledge

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20
Q

Bottom-Up Processing

A

our brain processes the information only it receives to construct understanding through experience

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21
Q

Concepts

A

our knowledge and ideas about a set of objects, actions, and characteristics that share core properties

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22
Q

Schemas

A

concepts we’ve stored in memory about how certain actions, objects, and ideas related to each other

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23
Q

Linguistic Determinism

A

view that all thought is represented verbally and that, as a result, our language defines our thinking

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24
Q

Linguistic Relativity

A

view that characteristic of language shape our thought processes

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25
Q

Higher-Order Cognition

A

aspects of thinking that require us to integrate the basic aspects of cognition (perception, knowledge, memory, language, reasoning) into a plan of action

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26
Q

Decision Making

A

the process of selecting among a set of possible alternatives

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27
Q

When making small decisions we often weigh the considerations…

A

quickly and below conscious awareness

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28
Q

Small decision making involves system __ thinking which is…

A

1; rapid and intuitive

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29
Q

Large decision making involves system __ thinking which is…

A

2; slow and analytical

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30
Q

Paralysis by Analysis

A

when our brains become overwhelmed by excessive information, like making a pros and cons list

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31
Q

Framing

A

the way a question is formulated that can influence the decisions people make

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32
Q

Neuroeconomics

A

study of how the brain works when making financial decisions

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33
Q

Problem Solving

A

generating a cognitive strategy to accomplish a goal

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34
Q

Algorithm

A

step-by-step learned procedure used to solve a problem

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35
Q

When are algorithms useful?

A

in problems that require the same basic steps to solve them (ie. making a PB & J sandwich)

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36
Q

Algorithms are inflexible meaning…

A

when something changes you would likely get stuck

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37
Q

Subproblems

A

a problem-solving strategy that involves breaking the problem down into easy to solve chunks

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38
Q

Reasoning from related examples

A

a problem-solving strategy that involves using prior information to fill in gaps

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39
Q

Analogies

A

used to solve problems with similar structures using comparison

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40
Q

Salience of Surface Similarities

A

focusing our attention on surface level properties of a problem and solving that problem the same way we did one similar

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41
Q

Salience

A

how attention grabbing something is

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42
Q

Focusing on underlying reasoning makes solving problems more ________.

A

challenging

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43
Q

Mental Set

A

phenomenon of becoming stuck in a specific problem-solving strategy, inhibiting our ability to generate alternatives (THINKING IN THE BOX)

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44
Q

Breaking free of the mental set involves which parts of the brain?

A

frontal and parietal lobes which inhibit previous responses and allow new strategies to be formed

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45
Q

Functional Fixedness

A

difficulty conceptualizing that an object typically used for one purpose can be used for another

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46
Q

What can humans do that computers can’t?

A

account for contexts and draw subtle inferences (top-down processing difficulty)

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47
Q

Computer Model of the Mind

A

model adopted to explain how the mind processes information like running data through a computer program

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48
Q

Embodiment Model of the Mind

A

shows that the brains sensory areas become activated when people think about objects, actions, and events

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49
Q

Language

A

largely arbitrary system of communication that combines symbols (words or gestures) in rule-based ways to create meaning

50
Q

Arbitrary

A

a characteristic of language that means sounds, words, and sentences have no clear relation to their meaning

51
Q

What do we mean when saying language is automatic?

A

using and interpreting requires little attention and we can often multi-task without speech getting in the way

52
Q

What are the four levels of language analysis?

A

phonemes, morphemes, syntax, extralinguistic information

53
Q

Phoneme

A

category of sounds our vocal apparatus (lips, teeth, tongue, vocal cords, etc.) produces

54
Q

Morpheme

A

smallest unit of meaningful speech

55
Q

Syntax

A

grammatical rules that govern how words are composed into meaningful strings

56
Q

Extralinguistic Information

A

elements of communication that aren’t part of the content of the language but are critical to interpreting its meaning (facial expressions, tone)

57
Q

How many phonemes exist worldwide? How many in English language?

A

100, 40-45

58
Q

Phonemes = _________

A

ingredients to construct words

59
Q

Morphemes are created by…

A

stringing phonemes together

60
Q

Morphemes are usually _____

A

words

61
Q

Morphemes =

A

menu items

62
Q

What type of information do morphemes convey?

A

semantics (meaning)

63
Q

Syntax =

A

putting the meal together

64
Q

Morphological Markers

A

grammatical elements that modify words by adding sounds to change meaning (ie. run vs. running)

65
Q

Extralinguistic Information =

A

overall dining experience

66
Q

What can arise from error in extralinguistic information?

A

misunderstanding (ie. in a text)

67
Q

Dialects

A

language variation used by a group of people who share geographic proximity or ethnic background

68
Q

Language must offer a survival _______ to offset its many disadvantages

A

advantage

69
Q

What is an advantage of language being arbitrary?

A

flexibility to express complex ideas

70
Q

Onomatopoeia

A

an example of non-arbitrary language that uses words to resemble sounds

71
Q

When does the process of learning language begin for children?

A

before they start talking, usually even before they are born

72
Q

When do infants ability to recognize mothers voice begin?

A

5 months

73
Q

High-Amplitude Sucking Procedure

A

way to test newborns ability to distinguish sounds using operant conditioning

74
Q

How does high-amplitude sucking procedure work?

A

two-day old infants suck more on a pacifier when hearing mothers native language over foreign language

75
Q

What rules out the possibility that all babies prefer english?

A

bilingual mothers

76
Q

Year 1 Infant Language

A

Begin to figure out phonemes and how to use their vocal apparatus to make sound

77
Q

Babbling

A

intentional vocalization that lacks specific meaning

78
Q

By what age are infants phoneme categories similar to adults of their native language?

A

10 months

79
Q

Comprehension precedes production

A

children learn to recognize and interpret words before they produce them

80
Q

What age do children begin to formulate words with meaning?

A

around 12 months

81
Q

What age do most children have a vocabulary of between 20-100 words?

A

12-18 months

82
Q

Overextension of Words

A

ie. referring to all flying objects as birds

83
Q

Underextension of Words

A

ie. thinking the word ‘cat’ only applies to their pet cat

84
Q

One-Word Stage

A

early period of language development when children use single-word phrases to convey an entire thought

85
Q

Sign Language

A

language developed by members of a community with hearing loss that uses visual rather than auditory communication

86
Q

Sign-space

A

space immediately in front of the signer

87
Q

What is a general misconception about sign language?

A

it is like charades acting out a sentence, when it really has its own phonemes, syntax, extralinguistic information

88
Q

4 Misconceptions About Sign Language

A
  1. It is just acting out like charades
  2. People who can lip read don’t need sign language
  3. Learning to sign slows down ability to learn to speak
  4. ASL is English translated word for word
89
Q

Skilled lip readers only pick up ___% of what is actually being said

A

30-35%

90
Q

ASL roots are actually…

A

French sign language, not English

91
Q

Signed English

A

translates English sentences word for word

92
Q

Babies who learn sign language pass through the same developmental stages as…

A

babies who learn spoken language

93
Q

Bilingual

A

proficient and fluent at speaking and comprehending two distinct languages

94
Q

Metalinguistic Insight

A

awareness of how language is structured and used

95
Q

Bilingual individuals who acquired their second language early in development use ____ brain areas for both languages. Later developed second languages use _____ brain areas.

A

similar; different

96
Q

Critical Periods

A

windows of time in development during which an organism must learn the ability if it is going to learn it at all

97
Q

Age of exposure effects are more dramatic for ____ and ____ than vocabulary.

A

syntax and pronunciation

98
Q

Homesign

A

system of signs invented by children with hearing loss of hearing parents who receive no language input

99
Q

Sensitive Period

A

interval where people are more receptive to learning

100
Q

Generative

A

allowing an infinite number of unique sentences to be created by combining words in novel ways

101
Q

Pure Nature and Nurture Accounts

A

simplest explanation of language learning through imitation

102
Q

Nativist Account

A

says children come into the world with some basic knowledge about language

103
Q

Language Acquisition Device

A

Hypothetical construct in the brain in which nativists believe knowledge of syntax resides

104
Q

Social Pragmatics Account

A

proposes that children infer what words and sentences mean from context and social interactions

105
Q

General Cognitive Processing Account

A

proposes that children’s ability to learn language results from skills children apply across a variety of activities

106
Q

Broca’s Area

A

Speech production

107
Q

Wernicke’s Area

A

Speech comprehension

108
Q

Reading must be _____ and _______

A

taught and practiced

109
Q

Stroop Colour-Naming Task

A

requires participants to identify the colour of ink used to print words, but the words are colour names that contradict the ink colour

110
Q

What does the Stroop task show?

A

reading is automatic and hard to inhibit

111
Q

What two skills need to be mastered to become expert readers?

A
  1. learning to recognize familiar words
  2. phonics
112
Q

Whole Word Recognition

A

reading strategy that involves identifying common words based on their appearance without having to sound them out

113
Q

Phonetic Decomposition

A

reading strategy that involves sounding out words by drawing correspondences between printed letters and sounds

114
Q

What suffers with ‘speed reading’?

A

comprehension

115
Q

Average reading rate:

A

200-300 words/min

116
Q

At what rate does comprehension fall below 50%?

A

reading faster than 400 words/min

117
Q

6 Principles of Scientific Thinking: Ruling out Rival Hypotheses

A

Have important alternative explanations for the findings been excluded?

118
Q

6 Principles of Scientific Thinking: Correlation vs. Causation

A

Can we be sure A causes B?

119
Q

6 Principles of Scientific Thinking: Falsifiability

A

Can the claim be disproved?

120
Q

6 Principles of Scientific Thinking: Replicability

A

Can the results be duplicated in other studies?

121
Q

6 Principles of Scientific Thinking: Extraordinary Claims

A

Is the evidence as strong as the claim?

122
Q

6 Principles of Scientific Thinking: Occam’s Razor

A

Does a simpler explanation fit the data just as well?

psyc 105 - introductory psychology ii (8 decks)

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