Chapter 10 - Human Development Flashcards
1
Q
Developmental Psychology
A
study of how behaviour and mental processes change over the lifespan
2
Q
Post Hoc Fallacy
A
false assumption that because one event occurred before another event, it must have caused the event
3
Q
What does it mean to say development is “bidirectional”?
A
experiences influence development but development also influences experiences
4
Q
Environmental Factors (nurture)
A
the things surrounding an individual that alter their trajectory (ie. nutrition, resources, opportunities)
5
Q
Genetic Factors (nature)
A
predetermined factors that alter life trajectory (ie. height, hair colour, disease)
6
Q
Unidirectional Explanations
A
those that attempt to explain development from a one-headed arrow (→ vs. ⇆)
7
Q
Cross-Sectional Design
A
research design that examines people of different ages at a single point in time
8
Q
What do cross-sectional designs not control for?
A
the cohort effect
9
Q
Cohort Effects
A
effect observed in a sample of participants that results from individuals in the sample growing up at the same time
10
Q
Longitudinal Design
A
research design that examines development in the same group of people on multiple occasions over time
11
Q
Longitudinal design solves the _______ effect problem
A
cohort
12
Q
Externalizing Behaviours
A
breaking rules, defying authority figures, committing crimes
13
Q
Attrition
A
participants drop out of the study before it is completed
14
Q
________ is a problem of longitudinal designs
A
attrition
15
Q
Why can’t we use longitudinal designs to infer cause-and-effect relationships?
A
they aren’t experimental designs
16
Q
Life experiences influences brain and behaviour throughout the _______
A
lifespan
17
Q
What are the two myths of development?
A
1.infant determinism
2. childhood fragility
18
Q
Infant Determinism
A
the widespread assumption that early experiences are more influential than later experiences
19
Q
Childhood Fragility
A
holds that children are delicate little creatures that are easily damaged
20
Q
Gene-Environment Interactions
A
the impact of genes on behaviour depends on the environment in which the behaviour develops
21
Q
Nature via Nurture
A
genetic predispositions can drive us to select and create particular environments, leading to a mistaken appearance of purely natural effects
22
Q
Gene Expression
A
some genes only “turn on” in response to specific environmental events
23
Q
Monoamine Oxidase (MAO)
A
an enzyme which in low production may heighten the risk for violent criminal behaviour
24
Q
Prenatal
A
prior to birth
25
When does the human body acquire basic form and structure?
prenatal period
26
When do the most dramatic prenatal changes occur?
in the earliest stages of development
27
Zygote
fertilized egg
28
Germinal Stage
zygote begins to divide and double forming a blastocyst
29
Blastocyst
ball of identical cells early in pregnancy that haven't yet begun to take on any specific function in a body part
30
When do cells begin to differentiate?
middle of the second week
31
What does the blastocyst become after cellular differentiation?
embryo
32
Embryo
second to eighth week of prenatal development, during which limbs, facial features, and major organs take form
33
What stage of fetal development does the heart begin to beat?
9th week
34
Fetal stage is the point where the embryo becomes a _______
fetus
35
Fetus
period of prenatal development from ninth week until birth after all major organs are established and physical maturation is the primary change
36
The final 1/3 of pregnancy is all about "_________ up"
bulking
37
The human brain begins to develop ___ days after fertilization
18
38
Most organs are completely formed by birth, except for the ____
brain
39
Proliferation
period between 18th day and 6th month where neurons develop at an astronomical rate
40
When do neurons start to sort themselves out and move to their final position in the brain?
starting at 4 months
41
What are 3 ways fetal development can be disrupted?
1. exposure to hazardous environmental influences
2. biological influences resulting from genetic disorders or errors during cell division
3. premature birth
42
Most females don't realize they are pregnant until after...
fetal body and brain development have started
43
Teratogen
an environmental factor that can exert a negative impact on prenatal development
44
Examples of teratogens...
drugs, alcohol, chicken pox, x-rays
45
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder
condition resulting from high levels of prenatal alcohol exposure, causing learning disabilities, delays in physical growth, facial malformations, behavioural disorders
46
__ of every 1000 births in Canada are diagnosed with FASD
9
47
Mothers who smoke or use recreational drugs are more likely to deliver ___________ babies
low birth weight
48
Low birth weight = less than ___ lbs
5.5
49
Average birth weight = ____ lbs
7.5
50
Low birth weight poses risk for...
death, infection, developmental disorders
51
Genetic disorders
random errors in cell divison
52
Full term baby = __ weeks or ___ months
40 weeks or 9.5 months
53
Premature babies are born earlier than __ weeks
36
54
Viability Point
point where infants can usually survive on their own
55
What is the viability point?
25 weeks
56
Reflexes
automatic motor behaviours infants are born with
57
Sucking Reflex
automatic response to oral stimulation
58
Motor Behaviours
bodily motion that occurs as a result of self-irritated force that moves bones and muscles
59
Sitting without support __ months
6
60
Crawling __ months
9
61
Standing __ months
11
62
Cruising __ months
12
63
Walking without assistance __ months
13
64
Running ___ to ___ months
18-24
65
Mini growth spurts occur every 30 to __ days from ages 3 to 16
55
66
Adolescence
the transition between childhood and adulthood commonly associated with the teenage yearss
67
Testosterone in Males
muscle tissue increase, growth of facial and body hair, broadening of shoulders
68
Estrogen in Females
breast growth, uterine and vaginal maturation, hip broadening, onset of menstruation
69
What change results in greater strength and endurance in males?
changes in lung function and circulation
70
Puberty
achievement of sexual maturation resulting in the potential to reproduce
71
Primary Sex Characteristics
physical feature such as the reproductive organs and genitals
72
Secondary Sex Characteristics
a sex-differentiating characteristic that doesn't relate directly to reproduction, such as breast enlargement and deepening of voices
73
Menarche
onset of mentruration
74
Spermarch
first ejaculation by males
75
Menopause
the termination of menstruation, marking the end of a females reproductive potential
76
Symptoms of Menopause
-hot flashes
-dry mouth
-mood swings
-disrupted sleep
-loss of sex drive
77
Cognitive Development
study of how children acquire the ability to learn, think, communicate, reason, and remember
78
In what 3 ways do cognitive developmental theories differ?
1. stage like vs. continuous changes
2. domain specific vs. domain general
3. view of principle source of learning
79
Domain-General
cross-cutting changes in cognitive skills that affect all areas of cognitive function at once
80
Domain Specific
cognitive skills develop independently at different rates across different domains such as reasoning, language, and counting
81
Who was the first psychologist to present a comprehensive account of cognitive development?
Jean Piaget
82
What did Piaget show?
-children's understanding of the world is different from adults
-children are active learners rather than passive observers
83
Was Piaget a stage or continuous theorist?
stage
84
Piaget believed children's development was marked by _________ in thinking at stages followed by periods where the understanding of the world stabilizes.
reorganizations
85
What did Piaget believe to be the "end point" in cognitive development?
achieving the ability to reason logically about hypothetical problems
86
Are Piagets stages domain general or domain specific?
domain general
87
Equlibriation
idea proposed by Piaget that cognitive change maintains a balance between our experiences and thoughts about the world
88
What two processes does Piaget suggest children use to keep their thinking in tune with their experiences?
assimilation and accomodation
89
Assimilation
Piagetian process of absorbing new experience into our current knowledge structures
90
Children use assimilation to acquire new knowledge _____ a stage
within
91
Accomodation
Piagetian process of altering a belief to make it more compatible with experience
92
How many stages are in Piaget's stages of development?
4
93
What age does the Sensorimotor stage range from?
birth to 2 years
94
Sensorimotor Stage
focus on the here and now without the ability to represent experiences mentally
95
What is the major milestone in the sensorimotor stage?
mental representation
96
Mental Representation
the ability to think about things that are absent from immediate surroundings
97
Object Permanence
lacking in the sensorimotor stage - the understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of view
98
Deferred Imitation
lacking in the sensorimotor stage - the ability to perform an action observed earlier
99
From what ages does the pre-operational stage last?
ages 2 to 7
100
Preoperational Stage
ability to construct mental representations of experience but not yet perform operations on them
101
Children in the preoperational stage are hampered by _________
egocentrism
102
Egocentrism
inability to see the world from others' perspectives
103
Children in the preoperational stage can't perform mental ___________
operations (transformations)
104
Conservation Tasks
Piagetian task requiring children to understand that despite a transformation in the physical presentation of an amount, the amount remains the same
105
Mental operation ability is tested by _________ tasks
conservation
106
From what ages does the concrete operations stage last?
age 7 to 11
107
Concrete Operations Stage
ability to perform mental operations on physical events only
108
From what ages does the formal operations stage last?
11 years to adulthood
109
Formal Operations Stage
ability to perform hypothetical reasoning beyond here and now
110
In the formal operations stage children understand if-____ statements and either-__ statements
if-then; either-or
111
Con of Piaget's Stages: much of development is __________ rather than stage-like and less ________
continuous; general
112
Horizontal Décalage
term Piaget used for when a child was more advanced in one domain over another
113
Piaget's methods were _________ biased
culturally, only used responses from children in Western societies
114
Vygotsky was interested in how ______ and ________ factors influence learning
social and cultural
115
Scaffolding
Vygotskian learning mechanism in which parents provide initial assistance in children's learning but gradually remove structure as children become more competent
116
Zone of Proximal Development
identified by Vygotsky as a phase of learning during which children can benefit from instruction
117
The Mozart Effect
the supposed enhancement in intelligence after listening to classical music
118
Theory of Mind
ability to reason about what other people know or believe
119
The frontal lobe responsible for planning, decision making, and impulse control doesn't fully develop until...
early adulthood
120
Personal Fable
teenagers' feelings of profound uniqueness and of living out of a story others are watching
121
Many aspects of cognitive function __________ with age
decline
122
Which areas of the brain are age-related decline pronounced in?
cortex and hippocampus (memory)
123
Free recall declines with age, but ______ recall and recognition remain intact.
cued recall
124
Adults remember material relevant to their __________ lives over random word lists.
everyday
125
Older adults perform better on __________ and knowledge tests
vocabulary
126
__________ intelligence stays the same or increases with age
crystallized
127
Stranger Anxiety aka _ month anxitety
a fear of strangers developing at 8 or 9 months of age
128
Temperament
basic emotional style that appears early in development and is largely genetic in origin
129
_____ infants are adaptable and relaxed (40% of babies)
Easy
130
______ infants are fussy and easily frustrated (10% of babies)
Difficult
131
____________ infants are disturbed by new stimuli but gradually adjust (15% of babies)
slow-to-warm-up
132
Behavioural Inhibition
infants who become frightened at the sight of new stimuli
133
Attachment
the strong emotional connection we share with those whom we feel closest
134
Contact Comfort
positive emotions afforded by touch
135
The Strange Situation
lab procedure for examining 1 year old's reaction to separation from their attachment figures
136
Secure attachment (60% of infants)
infant reacts to departure by becoming upset and greets their return with joy
137
Secure Base
rock-solid source of support to turn to in times of trouble
138
Insecure-Avoidant Attachment (15-20% of infants)
reacts with indifference and shows little reaction to their return
139
Insecure-Anxious Attachment (15-20% of infants)
reacts to departure with panic and shows mixed-emotions upon return
140
Disorganized Attachment (5-10% of infants)
later added style where children react to departure and return with an inconsistent and confused set of responses
141
Infants with a secure attachment style grow up to be...
more well adjusted, helpful, and empathetic
142
Infants with an anxious attachment style grow up to be...
more likely to be disliked and mistreated by peers
143
Mono-operation Bias
drawing conclusions on the basis of only a single measure
144
The Strange Situation is not very ______
reliable - consistency with measurement
145
More than ___% of children display a different attachment style with their mother than their father
40%
146
Child-centred aka "soft" parenting
parents should be highly responsive to child needs
147
Parent-centred aka "hard" parenting
parents don't reinforce children's calls for attentions
148
Permissive Parenting Style
-lenient with children
-allow freedom in and out of household
-use discipline sparingly
-shower children with affection
149
Authoritarian Parenting Style
-strict with children
-little opportunity for freedom
-punish when don't respond to demands
-show little affection
150
Authoritative Parenting Style
supportive but set clear and firm limits
151
Uninvolved Parenting Style
-ignore children
-pay no attention to positive or negative behaviours
152
Average Expectable Environment
environment that provides children with basic needs for affection and discipline
153
Harris's Group Socialization Theory
says that environmental transmission is horizontal (from children to other children) rather than vertical (from parents to children)
154
When parents experience mild conflict before the divorce, the effects of the divorce are more ______
severe
155
Sex
biological status as male or female
156
Gender
psychological characteristics - behaviours, thoughts, emotions
157
Gender Identity
individuals sense of being male, female, or other
158
Gender Role
a set of behaviours that tend to be associated with being a man or woman
159
Identity
our sense of self, who we are, and our life goals and priorities
160
Psychological Crisis
a dilemma concerning an individuals relations to others
161
Erikson's 8 Stages of Human Development
shows growth from womb to tomb
162
Stage 1 - Infancy
trust vs. mistrust - general security, optimism, and trust in others
163
Stage 2 - Toddlerhood
autonomy vs. shame and doubt - sense of independence and self-reliance
164
Stage 3 - Early Childhood
initiative vs. guilt - initiative in exploring and manipulating the environment
165
Stage 4 - Middle Childhood
industry vs. inferiority - enjoyment and mastery of tasks in and out of school
166
Stage 5 - Adolescence
identity vs. role confusion - stable and satisfying sense of role and direction
167
Stage 6 - Young Adulthood
intimacy vs. isolation - ability to maintain intimate personal relationships
168
Stage 7 - Adulthood
generativity vs. stagnation - satisfaction of personal and familial needs supplemented by development of interest in others and the world
169
Stage 8 - Aging
ego integrity vs. despair - adjusting and recognizing aging and the prospect of death with satisfaction about the past
170
Emerging Adulthood
period between age 18 and 25 where many aspects of emotional development, identity, and personality become solidified
171
Objective Responsibility
way to evaluate people based on how much harm they have done
172
Subjective Responsibility
way to evaluate people based on their intentions to produce harm
173
Preconventional Morality
stage marked by a focus on punishment and reward
174
Conventional Morality
stage marked by a focus on societal values
175
Postconventional Morality
stage marked by a focus on internal moral principles that transcend society
176
Kohlberg's Work on Morality is Biased by...
-Culture: assumes people pass through his levels no matter culture
-Sex: scheme unfairly favours men
-Low correlation with moral behaviour
-Confound with verbal intelligence
-Causal direction: assumes moral reasoning precedes our emotional reactions
177
Midlife Crisis
supposed phase of adulthood characterized by emotional distress about the aging process and an attempt to regain youth
178
Empty-Nest Syndrome
alleged period of depression in mothers following the departure of their grown children from home
179
Biological Age
estimate of age in terms of biological functioning
180
Psychological Age
persons mental attitudes and agility
181
Functional Age
ability to function in given roles in society
182
Social Age
whether people behave in accord with the social behaviours appropriate for their age
