Chapter 10 - Human Development Flashcards
Developmental Psychology
study of how behaviour and mental processes change over the lifespan
Post Hoc Fallacy
false assumption that because one event occurred before another event, it must have caused the event
What does it mean to say development is “bidirectional”?
experiences influence development but development also influences experiences
Environmental Factors (nurture)
the things surrounding an individual that alter their trajectory (ie. nutrition, resources, opportunities)
Genetic Factors (nature)
predetermined factors that alter life trajectory (ie. height, hair colour, disease)
Unidirectional Explanations
those that attempt to explain development from a one-headed arrow (→ vs. ⇆)
Cross-Sectional Design
research design that examines people of different ages at a single point in time
What do cross-sectional designs not control for?
the cohort effect
Cohort Effects
effect observed in a sample of participants that results from individuals in the sample growing up at the same time
Longitudinal Design
research design that examines development in the same group of people on multiple occasions over time
Longitudinal design solves the _______ effect problem
cohort
Externalizing Behaviours
breaking rules, defying authority figures, committing crimes
Attrition
participants drop out of the study before it is completed
________ is a problem of longitudinal designs
attrition
Why can’t we use longitudinal designs to infer cause-and-effect relationships?
they aren’t experimental designs
Life experiences influences brain and behaviour throughout the _______
lifespan
What are the two myths of development?
1.infant determinism
2. childhood fragility
Infant Determinism
the widespread assumption that early experiences are more influential than later experiences
Childhood Fragility
holds that children are delicate little creatures that are easily damaged
Gene-Environment Interactions
the impact of genes on behaviour depends on the environment in which the behaviour develops
Nature via Nurture
genetic predispositions can drive us to select and create particular environments, leading to a mistaken appearance of purely natural effects
Gene Expression
some genes only “turn on” in response to specific environmental events
Monoamine Oxidase (MAO)
an enzyme which in low production may heighten the risk for violent criminal behaviour
Prenatal
prior to birth
When does the human body acquire basic form and structure?
prenatal period
When do the most dramatic prenatal changes occur?
in the earliest stages of development
Zygote
fertilized egg
Germinal Stage
zygote begins to divide and double forming a blastocyst
Blastocyst
ball of identical cells early in pregnancy that haven’t yet begun to take on any specific function in a body part
When do cells begin to differentiate?
middle of the second week
What does the blastocyst become after cellular differentiation?
embryo
Embryo
second to eighth week of prenatal development, during which limbs, facial features, and major organs take form
What stage of fetal development does the heart begin to beat?
9th week
Fetal stage is the point where the embryo becomes a _______
fetus
Fetus
period of prenatal development from ninth week until birth after all major organs are established and physical maturation is the primary change
The final 1/3 of pregnancy is all about “_________ up”
bulking
The human brain begins to develop ___ days after fertilization
18
Most organs are completely formed by birth, except for the ____
brain
Proliferation
period between 18th day and 6th month where neurons develop at an astronomical rate
When do neurons start to sort themselves out and move to their final position in the brain?
starting at 4 months
What are 3 ways fetal development can be disrupted?
- exposure to hazardous environmental influences
- biological influences resulting from genetic disorders or errors during cell division
- premature birth
Most females don’t realize they are pregnant until after…
fetal body and brain development have started
Teratogen
an environmental factor that can exert a negative impact on prenatal development
Examples of teratogens…
drugs, alcohol, chicken pox, x-rays
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder
condition resulting from high levels of prenatal alcohol exposure, causing learning disabilities, delays in physical growth, facial malformations, behavioural disorders
__ of every 1000 births in Canada are diagnosed with FASD
9
Mothers who smoke or use recreational drugs are more likely to deliver ___________ babies
low birth weight
Low birth weight = less than ___ lbs
5.5
Average birth weight = ____ lbs
7.5
Low birth weight poses risk for…
death, infection, developmental disorders
Genetic disorders
random errors in cell divison
Full term baby = __ weeks or ___ months
40 weeks or 9.5 months
Premature babies are born earlier than __ weeks
36
Viability Point
point where infants can usually survive on their own
What is the viability point?
25 weeks
Reflexes
automatic motor behaviours infants are born with
Sucking Reflex
automatic response to oral stimulation
Motor Behaviours
bodily motion that occurs as a result of self-irritated force that moves bones and muscles
Sitting without support __ months
6
Crawling __ months
9
Standing __ months
11
Cruising __ months
12
Walking without assistance __ months
13
Running ___ to ___ months
18-24
Mini growth spurts occur every 30 to __ days from ages 3 to 16
55
Adolescence
the transition between childhood and adulthood commonly associated with the teenage yearss
Testosterone in Males
muscle tissue increase, growth of facial and body hair, broadening of shoulders
Estrogen in Females
breast growth, uterine and vaginal maturation, hip broadening, onset of menstruation
What change results in greater strength and endurance in males?
changes in lung function and circulation
Puberty
achievement of sexual maturation resulting in the potential to reproduce
Primary Sex Characteristics
physical feature such as the reproductive organs and genitals
Secondary Sex Characteristics
a sex-differentiating characteristic that doesn’t relate directly to reproduction, such as breast enlargement and deepening of voices
Menarche
onset of mentruration
Spermarch
first ejaculation by males
Menopause
the termination of menstruation, marking the end of a females reproductive potential
Symptoms of Menopause
-hot flashes
-dry mouth
-mood swings
-disrupted sleep
-loss of sex drive
Cognitive Development
study of how children acquire the ability to learn, think, communicate, reason, and remember
In what 3 ways do cognitive developmental theories differ?
- stage like vs. continuous changes
- domain specific vs. domain general
- view of principle source of learning
Domain-General
cross-cutting changes in cognitive skills that affect all areas of cognitive function at once
Domain Specific
cognitive skills develop independently at different rates across different domains such as reasoning, language, and counting
Who was the first psychologist to present a comprehensive account of cognitive development?
Jean Piaget
What did Piaget show?
-children’s understanding of the world is different from adults
-children are active learners rather than passive observers
Was Piaget a stage or continuous theorist?
stage
Piaget believed children’s development was marked by _________ in thinking at stages followed by periods where the understanding of the world stabilizes.
reorganizations
What did Piaget believe to be the “end point” in cognitive development?
achieving the ability to reason logically about hypothetical problems
Are Piagets stages domain general or domain specific?
domain general
Equlibriation
idea proposed by Piaget that cognitive change maintains a balance between our experiences and thoughts about the world
What two processes does Piaget suggest children use to keep their thinking in tune with their experiences?
assimilation and accomodation
Assimilation
Piagetian process of absorbing new experience into our current knowledge structures
Children use assimilation to acquire new knowledge _____ a stage
within
Accomodation
Piagetian process of altering a belief to make it more compatible with experience
How many stages are in Piaget’s stages of development?
4
What age does the Sensorimotor stage range from?
birth to 2 years
Sensorimotor Stage
focus on the here and now without the ability to represent experiences mentally
What is the major milestone in the sensorimotor stage?
mental representation
Mental Representation
the ability to think about things that are absent from immediate surroundings
Object Permanence
lacking in the sensorimotor stage - the understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of view
Deferred Imitation
lacking in the sensorimotor stage - the ability to perform an action observed earlier
From what ages does the pre-operational stage last?
ages 2 to 7
Preoperational Stage
ability to construct mental representations of experience but not yet perform operations on them
Children in the preoperational stage are hampered by _________
egocentrism
Egocentrism
inability to see the world from others’ perspectives
Children in the preoperational stage can’t perform mental ___________
operations (transformations)
Conservation Tasks
Piagetian task requiring children to understand that despite a transformation in the physical presentation of an amount, the amount remains the same
Mental operation ability is tested by _________ tasks
conservation
From what ages does the concrete operations stage last?
age 7 to 11
Concrete Operations Stage
ability to perform mental operations on physical events only
From what ages does the formal operations stage last?
11 years to adulthood
Formal Operations Stage
ability to perform hypothetical reasoning beyond here and now
In the formal operations stage children understand if-____ statements and either-__ statements
if-then; either-or
Con of Piaget’s Stages: much of development is __________ rather than stage-like and less ________
continuous; general
Horizontal Décalage
term Piaget used for when a child was more advanced in one domain over another
Piaget’s methods were _________ biased
culturally, only used responses from children in Western societies
Vygotsky was interested in how ______ and ________ factors influence learning
social and cultural
Scaffolding
Vygotskian learning mechanism in which parents provide initial assistance in children’s learning but gradually remove structure as children become more competent
Zone of Proximal Development
identified by Vygotsky as a phase of learning during which children can benefit from instruction
The Mozart Effect
the supposed enhancement in intelligence after listening to classical music
Theory of Mind
ability to reason about what other people know or believe
The frontal lobe responsible for planning, decision making, and impulse control doesn’t fully develop until…
early adulthood
Personal Fable
teenagers’ feelings of profound uniqueness and of living out of a story others are watching
Many aspects of cognitive function __________ with age
decline
Which areas of the brain are age-related decline pronounced in?
cortex and hippocampus (memory)
Free recall declines with age, but ______ recall and recognition remain intact.
cued recall
Adults remember material relevant to their __________ lives over random word lists.
everyday
Older adults perform better on __________ and knowledge tests
vocabulary
__________ intelligence stays the same or increases with age
crystallized
Stranger Anxiety aka _ month anxitety
a fear of strangers developing at 8 or 9 months of age
Temperament
basic emotional style that appears early in development and is largely genetic in origin
_____ infants are adaptable and relaxed (40% of babies)
Easy
______ infants are fussy and easily frustrated (10% of babies)
Difficult
____________ infants are disturbed by new stimuli but gradually adjust (15% of babies)
slow-to-warm-up
Behavioural Inhibition
infants who become frightened at the sight of new stimuli
Attachment
the strong emotional connection we share with those whom we feel closest
Contact Comfort
positive emotions afforded by touch
The Strange Situation
lab procedure for examining 1 year old’s reaction to separation from their attachment figures
Secure attachment (60% of infants)
infant reacts to departure by becoming upset and greets their return with joy
Secure Base
rock-solid source of support to turn to in times of trouble
Insecure-Avoidant Attachment (15-20% of infants)
reacts with indifference and shows little reaction to their return
Insecure-Anxious Attachment (15-20% of infants)
reacts to departure with panic and shows mixed-emotions upon return
Disorganized Attachment (5-10% of infants)
later added style where children react to departure and return with an inconsistent and confused set of responses
Infants with a secure attachment style grow up to be…
more well adjusted, helpful, and empathetic
Infants with an anxious attachment style grow up to be…
more likely to be disliked and mistreated by peers
Mono-operation Bias
drawing conclusions on the basis of only a single measure
The Strange Situation is not very ______
reliable - consistency with measurement
More than ___% of children display a different attachment style with their mother than their father
40%
Child-centred aka “soft” parenting
parents should be highly responsive to child needs
Parent-centred aka “hard” parenting
parents don’t reinforce children’s calls for attentions
Permissive Parenting Style
-lenient with children
-allow freedom in and out of household
-use discipline sparingly
-shower children with affection
Authoritarian Parenting Style
-strict with children
-little opportunity for freedom
-punish when don’t respond to demands
-show little affection
Authoritative Parenting Style
supportive but set clear and firm limits
Uninvolved Parenting Style
-ignore children
-pay no attention to positive or negative behaviours
Average Expectable Environment
environment that provides children with basic needs for affection and discipline
Harris’s Group Socialization Theory
says that environmental transmission is horizontal (from children to other children) rather than vertical (from parents to children)
When parents experience mild conflict before the divorce, the effects of the divorce are more ______
severe
Sex
biological status as male or female
Gender
psychological characteristics - behaviours, thoughts, emotions
Gender Identity
individuals sense of being male, female, or other
Gender Role
a set of behaviours that tend to be associated with being a man or woman
Identity
our sense of self, who we are, and our life goals and priorities
Psychological Crisis
a dilemma concerning an individuals relations to others
Erikson’s 8 Stages of Human Development
shows growth from womb to tomb
Stage 1 - Infancy
trust vs. mistrust - general security, optimism, and trust in others
Stage 2 - Toddlerhood
autonomy vs. shame and doubt - sense of independence and self-reliance
Stage 3 - Early Childhood
initiative vs. guilt - initiative in exploring and manipulating the environment
Stage 4 - Middle Childhood
industry vs. inferiority - enjoyment and mastery of tasks in and out of school
Stage 5 - Adolescence
identity vs. role confusion - stable and satisfying sense of role and direction
Stage 6 - Young Adulthood
intimacy vs. isolation - ability to maintain intimate personal relationships
Stage 7 - Adulthood
generativity vs. stagnation - satisfaction of personal and familial needs supplemented by development of interest in others and the world
Stage 8 - Aging
ego integrity vs. despair - adjusting and recognizing aging and the prospect of death with satisfaction about the past
Emerging Adulthood
period between age 18 and 25 where many aspects of emotional development, identity, and personality become solidified
Objective Responsibility
way to evaluate people based on how much harm they have done
Subjective Responsibility
way to evaluate people based on their intentions to produce harm
Preconventional Morality
stage marked by a focus on punishment and reward
Conventional Morality
stage marked by a focus on societal values
Postconventional Morality
stage marked by a focus on internal moral principles that transcend society
Kohlberg’s Work on Morality is Biased by…
-Culture: assumes people pass through his levels no matter culture
-Sex: scheme unfairly favours men
-Low correlation with moral behaviour
-Confound with verbal intelligence
-Causal direction: assumes moral reasoning precedes our emotional reactions
Midlife Crisis
supposed phase of adulthood characterized by emotional distress about the aging process and an attempt to regain youth
Empty-Nest Syndrome
alleged period of depression in mothers following the departure of their grown children from home
Biological Age
estimate of age in terms of biological functioning
Psychological Age
persons mental attitudes and agility
Functional Age
ability to function in given roles in society
Social Age
whether people behave in accord with the social behaviours appropriate for their age
