Chapter 8 - Psychology of Athletic Preparation and Performance

Question 1

Ideal Performance State

Answer 1

Ultimate goal of every athlete.
Characterized by a “quiet mind” that results in less cortical interference with the (subcortical) motor control centers and in consistent and efficient execution of motor performance.

Question 2

Psychological and Physiological Efficiency

Answer 2

Employing only the amount of mental and physical energy required to perform the task.

Question 3

3 Major Goals of Sports Psychology

Answer 3

1. Measuring psychological phenomena.
2. Investigating relationships between psychological variables and performance.
3. Applying theoretical knowledge to improve athletic performance.

Question 4

Ideal Performance State Traits (6)

Answer 4

1. Absence of Fear (no fear of failure).
2. No thinking about or analysis of performance (related to motor stage of automaticity).
3. Narrow focus on the activity.
4. Sense of effortlessness - involuntary experience.
5. Sense of person control.
6. Distortion of time and space, in which time seems to slow.

Question 5

Arousal

Answer 5

Simply a blend of physiological and psychological activation in an individual and refers to thee intensity of motivation at any given moment (ii.e. being psyched-up with traits from ideal performance state).

Question 6

State Anxiety

Answer 6

Apprehension and uncertainty, accompanied by uncontrolled arousal.
Generally a negative experience, but can have a positive, negative, or indifferent impact on performance.

Question 7

Anxiety

Answer 7

Subcategory of arousal in that it’s a negatively perceived emotional state characterized by nervousness, worry, apprehension, or fear and is associated with a physiological activation of the body.

Question 8

Trait Anxiety

Answer 8

Views situations as threatening.
Acts as a primer for experiencing state anxiety.
High levels of trait anxiety tend to flood their attention toward task-irrelevant cues (i.e. thoughts of failure, catastrophe, or ego-oriented concerns).

Question 9

Somatic Anxiety

Answer 9

Physical symptoms such as tense muscles, tachycardia (fast HR), and the “butterflies”.
Subpart of State Anxiety.

Question 10

Cognitive Anxiety

Answer 10

Psychological symptoms of worry and negative thoughts.

Subpart of State Anxiety.

Question 11

Factors of Lacking Psychological and Physical Efficiency (3)

Answer 11

1. High degree of ego involvement, in which the athlete may perceive a threat to themself.
2. Perceived discrepancy between one’s ability and the demands for athletic success.
3. Fear of consequences of failure (i.e. loss of approval from teammates, coach, family, or peers).

Typically initiated by uncertainty about a present or anticipated event.

Question 12

Stress

Answer 12

Any disruption from homeostasis or mental and physical calm; can be negative (distress) or positive (eustress).

Question 13

Stressor

Answer 13

Environmental or cognitive event that causes stress.

Question 14

Attention

Answer 14

Attention is the processing oof both environmental and internal cues that come to awareness.
The ability too focus attention on task-relevant cues and to control distraction is a skill that can be learned.
Selective attention is commonly referred to by athletes as their level of focus and refers to the suppression of task-irrelevant stimuli and thoughts (ex. baseball pitcher knowing the batter’s tendencies and the location of the runners on base).

Question 15

Skill Level and Arousal

Answer 15

The more skill and athlete has, the better they can perform during states of less-than or greater-than-optimal arousal.
Optimal arousal is lower for less skilled than for more advanced athletes.
Coaches should lower arousal and decrease decision making responsibilities of athletes that are still developing or unseasoned.

Question 16

Levels of Arousal and Cues (high, moderate, low)

Answer 16

Low levels of arousal: both relevant and irrelevant cues can come to the athlete’s awareness. The athlete may not concentrate well at these under-aroused levels.
Moderate levels of arousal: athletes experience more focus because of the exclusion of task-irrelevant cues.
High levels of arousal: athlete may not notice task-relevant cues.

Question 17

Attentional Styles (2)

Answer 17

Internal-external (direction).

Broad-narrow (width).

Question 18

Internal-external Attentional Style

Answer 18

Direction.

Introspective v. externally oriented perspective.

Question 19

Broad-narrow Attentional Style

Answer 19

Width.

Integrative (expansive) v. highly selective orientation.

Question 20

4 Quadrants of Attentional Focus

Answer 20

Broad-external.
Broad-internal.
Narrow external.
Narrow-internal.

Question 21

Broad-external

Answer 21

Athlete assess the situation by looking at the environment and various elements within it.

Question 22

Broad-internal

Answer 22

Athlete processes information and develops a strategy.

Question 23

Narrow-internal

Answer 23

Athlete mentally rehearses the upcoming action.

Question 24

Narrow-external

Answer 24

Athlete specifically focuses on one or two external cues to generate action.

Question 25

How the Mind Affects the Athlete’s Performance?

Answer 25

1. There are direct physical links between the mind and the body.
2. Tangible physical processes occur in the brain and body as a result of the athlete’s thought process.
3. These changes influence neuromuscular activation, coordination, autonomic arousal, and metabolism, which can further cause changes in motor performance.
4. Resultant changes may be beneficial, detrimental, or neutral, depending on the nature of the task, the athlete’s level of skill, and the complexity of the task in terms of decision making.

Question 26

Intrinsic Motivation

Answer 26

A desire to be competent and self-determining.
The athlete is a self-starter because of his or her love of the game.
Motivated by enjoyment or fun.

Question 27

Extrinsic Motivation

Answer 27

Motivation that comes from external as opposed to internal source.
i.e. rewards, awards, praise, fear of punishment.
Athletes are never 100% motivated by intrinsic or extrinsic; varying degrees of each occur.

Question 28

Achievement Motivation

Answer 28

Person’s effort to master a task, achieve excellence, overcome obstacles, and engage in competition or social comparison.
All other things equal between two athletes, whoever is higher in achievement motivation will be the better athlete because he or she has a greater appetite for competition.

Question 29

Self-controlled Practice

Answer 29

Involves the athlete in decisions related to the practice structure, including when to receive feedback or which skill to practice.
Also involves simply asking athletes how they believe they are doing.
Promotes a more active involvement in the practice session and can enhance feelings of competence and autonomy (making decisions).

Question 30

Positive Reinforcement

Answer 30

Act of increasing the probability off occurrence of a given behavior (operant) by following it with a positive action, object, or event (i.e. praise, decals on helmet, awards).
This is the most effective because it focuses on what the athlete should do and what they did right (specific positive feedback).

Question 31

Operant

Answer 31

A target behavior, such as correct footwork in basketball.

Question 32

Negative Reinforcement

Answer 32

Increases probability of occurrence of a given behavior by removing an act, object, or event that is typically aversive.
I.e. if the team showed great hustle in practice, (operant is enthusiasm and hustle), then the coach could announce “no wind sprints after practice”.
Both positive and negative reinforcements increase task-related focus rather than worry focus.

Question 33

Positive Punishment

Answer 33

Presentation of an act, object, or event following a unwanted behavior that could decrease the occurrence of said behavior.
I.e. reprimanding a player after a mistake (making an athlete do push-ups or sprints after a fumble).

Question 34

Negative Punishment

Answer 34

Removal of something valued.

I.e. revoking privileges, reduced playing time.

Question 35

Selective Attention

Answer 35

aka. level of focus.

Suppression of task irrelevant stimuli and thoughts.

Question 36

Application of Positive and Negative Reinforcement (4)

Answer 36

1. Coaches should generally subscribe to a reinforcement strategy to assist athletes in focusing on what they do correctly.
2. Punishment should be used sparingly because it increases likelihood that the athlete will focus on what they are doing incorrectly.
3. Positive reinforcement aids focus on task-relevant cues during conditions that promote narrow focus of attention.
4. Punishment floods attentional capacity with a predominance of task-irrelevant cues.

Question 37

Inverted-U Theory

Answer 37

States that arousal facilitates performance up to an optimal level, beyond which further increases in arousal are associated with reduced performance.

Question 38

Skill Level

Answer 38

The more skill an athlete has developed, the better he or she can perform during states of less or greater than optimal arousal

Question 39

Task Complexity

Answer 39

Simple skills can tolerate a higher degree of arousal (and attention narrowing).
Skills involving a lot of decision making require low levels of arousal.

Question 40

Extroverts v. Introverts

Answer 40

Extroverts are sensory reducers.
Introverts are sensory augmenters, or increases.

Introverts perform better with lower levels of arousal.

Question 41

Individual Zones of Optimal Functioning Theory

Answer 41

Different people, in different types of performances, perform best with very different levels of arousal.

Question 42

How Optimal Functioning Theory Differs from Inverted-U Theory

Answer 42

1. Ideal performance doesn’t seem to always occur at the midpoint of the arousal continuum.
2. Rather than there being a single defined arousal point in which optimal arousal occurs, this best performance can occur within a small range or arousal level.

Question 43

Catastrophe Theory

Answer 43

When increases in physiological arousal occur in the presence of cognitive anxiety, a sudden drop (rather than a gradual decline) in performance occurs.
Even if the athlete restores a degree of “calm”, it does not necessarily bring s return to the level of performance exhibited before the decline.

Question 44

Reversal Theory

Answer 44

One athlete may interpret high levels of or arousal as excitement and performance readiness.
Another athlete, experiencing the same emotion at the same arousal level, would interpret this feeling as unpleasant and reflective of lack or confidence.

Question 45

Self-Efficacy

Answer 45

Perceived self-confidence about a given task in a specific situation may be a better predictor of task execution than either arousal or anxiety.

Question 46

Goal Setting

Answer 46

Process whereby progressively challenging standards of performance are pursued with a defined criteria of task performance that increases the likelihood of perceived success.

Question 47

Process Goals

Answer 47

Goals over whose achievement the athlete has control.
Focus on actions the individual must engage in during performance to execute the skill well (i.e. focusing on the process of achieving an outcome, rather than just the outcome).
If effort is expended, success occur with a high degree of probability.
I.e. form, technique, time (swimming and running), weight loss (everyday tasks; aerobic activity and dietary modifications.

Question 48

Outcome Goals

Answer 48

Goals over which thee athlete has little control (i.e. winning, earning a medal, scoring points, generating a high ranking).
Contingent on the effort and abilities of both the individual and others (usually out of the individual’s control).
If an athlete is extremely confident and under matched in competition, then focusing on the outcome may be the beneficial.

Question 49

Process v. Outcome Goals strength and condition examples (doesn’t pertain to winning)

Answer 49

Emphasizing power clean technique (process).

Focusing on only completing the set (outcome).

Question 50

Short-term Goals

Answer 50

Directly related to current training or competition and are guidelines that can b attained in a relatively short time frame.
Increase likelihood of success because they’re relatively close to the athlete’s present ability level.
Achievement of specific short-term goals should lead to related long-term goals.

Question 51

Long-term Goals

Answer 51

Overarch the series of linked short-term goals.

Question 52

Guidelines for Using Goal Setting (4)

Answer 52

1. Long-term and short-term goals are interdependent.
2. Long-term goals provide a sense of meaningfulness and direction for pursuing short-term goals.
3. The attainment of short-term goals provides a hierarchical sense of mastery and success that builds self-confidence.
4. Athletes should define process goals to focus on elements of their performance over which they have control.

Question 53

Effective Behavioral Coaching

Answer 53

A coach specifies the components of a given skill and charts the athlete’s success with each component until the whole skill is mastered.
Feedback, or knowledge of success and failure, is more effective in the presence of specific, quantifiable goals; as opposed to vague standards of performance.

Question 54

Goal Setting Affects Performance because…

Answer 54

Goals direct and athlete’s attention by prioritizing efforts.
Goals increase effort because of the contingency of success on goal attainment.
Goals increase positive reinforcement through the feedback given to athletes.

Question 55

Whole Practice v. Part Practice

Answer 55

W: practices skill in entirety (a lunge).
P: separates skill into subcomponents (snatch; first pull, transition, second pull, and catch). aka segmentation.
Challenging task with low interrelatedness of subcomponents are learned better with part practice.

Question 56

Pure-part, Progressive-part, and Repetitive-part Training

Answer 56

Pure: practice subcomponents of a skill multiple times independently.
Progressive: practice the first two parts in isolation before practicing the parts together.
Repetitive: practice only the first part in isolation, then each subsequent part is added until the whole task is reintegrated.

Question 57

Random, Variable, and Observational Practice

Answer 57

R: Multiple skills are practiced in a random order during a given session (squat depth jump, depth jump w/ lateral movement, squat split jump). Performance can decline, but learning is facilitated.
V: Variations of the same skill within a single session as opposed to specific practice in which a specific skill is repeated multiple times (depth jumps to second box of varying heights). Can also impair performance, but can enhance performance on a novel variation of a skill.
O: Practice through observation of the skill (videos or live demonstrations). Learning is enhanced.

Question 58

Intrinsic Feedback

Answer 58

Feedback provided to the athlete by the athlete from the senses. Allows the athlete to fine-tune and adjust the movement pattern.
i.e. sensory information about missing a box during a box jump.

Question 59

Augmented Feedback

Answer 59

Feedback provided to the athlete by either an observer (coach, video, lab equipment).
I.e. coach can tell the athlete what happened to cause the movement to not go as planned.

Question 60

Relaxation Techniques to Control Elevated Arousal and Anxiety

Answer 60

Are designed to reduce physiological arousal and increase task-relevant focus. Important for when one is executing complex tasks and those not well learned.

Diaphragmatic Breathing.
Progressive Muscular Relaxation (PMR).
Autogenic Training.

Question 61

Diaphragmatic Breathing

Answer 61

Focusing thought on breathing clears the mind and therefore increases attentional capacity.
“Belly Breathing”
Breathing in and out through the abs.

Question 62

Progressive Muscular Relaxation (PMR)

Answer 62

By going through a series of alternate muscular tensing and relaxing phases, the athlete learns tot become aware of somatic tension and thereby to control it.
Maximally tense each muscle for a short period of time (10-15s).

Question 63

Autogenic Training

Answer 63

The PMR cycle for each muscle group is replaced with an attentional state that focuses on the sense of warmth and heaviness for a particular limb or muscle group.
It’s to produce physical sensations in the body.
Good for older and/or injured athletes, as it doesn’t require maximal muscle tensing.

Question 64

System Desensitization

Answer 64

Combines mental and physical techniques that allow an athlete to replace a fear response to various cues with a relaxation response.
Requires good skill at PMR and mental imagery.
An athlete should construct a progression of events and situations that they perceive as fearful.
In a relaxed setting, they visualize the first scene, thus inducing mild anxiety, while at the same time performing physical relaxation techniques (diaphramic breathing, PMR).
This is practice until the athlete can hold the image clearly while maintaining a relaxed state.

Question 65

Mental Imagery

Answer 65

A cognitive skill in which the athlete creates or recreates an experience in his or her mind.
For athletes, it’s used to simulate a mental experience of an athlete performance.

Question 66

Hypnosis

Answer 66

An induced state of hyper suggestibility in which positive suggestions relating to an athlete’s performance potential can be planted in the subconscious mind.
Can be an effective tool for psychological arousal and sometimes for behavior or performance change.

Question 67

How Should Athletes Use Arousal Control Techniques (3)

Answer 67

1. An athlete should employ arousal REDUCTION techniques when performing a new skill or one that his complex, or when performing in high-pressure situations.
2. Athletes should employ arousal INCREASING techniques when executing simple skills, ones that are well learned, or in situations of minimal pressure.
3. The purpose of employing such techniques is to allow the athlete to perform with an unburdened mind and while matching his or her mental and physical intensity to the demands of the task.

Question 68

Motive to Achieve Success (MAS)

Answer 68

Capacity to experience pride in one’s accomplishments and is characterized by a desire to challenge oneself and evaluate one’s abilities.

Question 69

Motive to Avoid Failure (MAF)

Answer 69

Desire to protect one’s ego and self-esteem.

Not really about failure, but more about avoiding the perception of shame that comes with failure.

Question 70

Segmentation and Fractionalization (for part-practice only)

Answer 70

Segmentation: Breaks down the task into a series of subcomponents that have a clear break between them (ex. snatch).
Fractionalization: breaks task into subcomponents that occur simultaneously (ex. push press; practicing the press motion of the arms and push motion of the legs independently).

Question 71

Simplification

Answer 71

Adjusts difficulty of the tasks by changing characteristics such as execution speed or the equipment used.
Ex. snatch; having an athlete first practice the subcomponents with a PVC pipe (both segmentation and fractionalization are used.