Chapter 7 - Age and Sex Related Differences and Their Implications for Resistance Exercise

Question 1

Chronological Age v. Biological Age - Children

Answer 1

C: stage of maturation or development by age in months or years.
B: stage of maturation measured in terms of skeletal age, physique maturity, or sexual maturation.

Question 2

Somatic Age

Answer 2

Reflects the degree of growth in overall stature or smaller, sub dimensions of the body (e.g. limb length).

Question 3

Training Age

Answer 3

Length of time the child has consistently followed a formalized and supervised RT program.

Question 4

Puberty

Answer 4

Refers to a period of time in which secondary sex characteristics develop and a child is transformed into a young adult.
During puberty, changes also occur in body composition and the performance of physical skills.

Question 5

Children Growth Rate

Answer 5

Children do not grow at a constant rate, and there are substantial inter-individual difference in physical development at any given chronological age.
During the period of peak height velocity, young athletes may be at an INCREASED RISK OF INJURY.

Question 6

Muscle and Bone Growth - Children

Answer 6

Muscle mass steadily increases throughout the developing years.
During puberty, marked increases in hormonal concentrations (e.g. test., GH, IGF) in boys result in a marked increase in muscle mass and widening of the shoulders.
In girls, an increase in estrogen production causes increased BF deposition, breast development, and widening of the hips.
When the epiphyseal plate becomes completely ossified, the long bones stop growing.
Particular concern with children is the vulnerability of the growth cartilage to trauma and overuse.

Question 7

Developmental Changes in Muscular Strength - Children

Answer 7

In boys, peak gains in strength typically occur about 1.2 years after peak height velocity and 0.8 years after peak weight velocity.
In girls, peak gains in strength also typically occur after peak height velocity, although there’s more individual variation in the relationship of strength to height and BW.
On average, peak strength in usually attained by age 20 in untrained women and between the ages of 20-30 in untrained men.
An important factor related to the expression of muscular strength in children is the development of the nervous system.

Question 8

Body Types

Answer 8

Mesomorphic - muscular and broader shoulders.
Endomorphic - rounder and broader hips.
Ectomorphic - slender and tall.

Question 9

Responsiveness to Resistance Training - Youth RT

Answer 9

Training-induced gains from a short-duration, low-volume training program are not distinguishable from gains attributable to normal growth and maturation.
Strength gains of roughly 30%-40% have been typically observed in untrained preadolescent children following short-term RT programs.
Similar to adults, continuous training is needed to maintain the strength advantage of exercise-induced adaptations in children.
Preadolescents have more potential for increases in motor unit activation and synchronization, as well as enhanced motor unit recruitment and firing frequency.

Question 10

Potential Benefits - Youth RT

Answer 10

Participation in a youth RT program can influence many health- and fitness-related measures.
Increased neutral factors, as opposed to hypertrophic factors, are primarily responsible for strength gains in preadolescent children.

Question 11

Potential Risk and Concerns - Youth RT

Answer 11

Appropriately prescribed youth RT programs are relatively safe.
Most injuries that occur are usually accidental and typically occur in cases in which the level of supervision and instruction, technical competency, and training loads are inappropriate.
1RM can be safe with adequate warm up, individual progression of loads, and close supervision.

Question 12

Program Design Considerations - Youth RT

Answer 12

Consider quality of instruction and rate of progression.
Focus on skill improvement, personal success, and having fun.
Pre-training medical assessment not mandatory for seemingly health children, but everyone should screened for any injury or illness that limits or prevents safe participation.
Adv. multi-joint movements (i.e. snatch, clean jerk) can be incorporated at appropriate times (i.e. basic strength and proper technique progressions).

Question 13

How Can We Reduce Risk of Overuse Injuries in Youth? (1-5)

Answer 13

1. Evaluated by a sports med. doctor before participation.
2. Parents should be educated about the benefits and risks of competitive sports.
3. Children and adolescents should be encouraged to participate in long-term training programs with adequate time for recovery between sport seasons.
4. Training programs should be mutlidimentions, incorporating elements of RT, fundamental movement skills, speed, Plyos and agility developments, and dynamic stabilization.
5. Youth coaches should implement well-planned recovery strategies between hard workouts and competitions.

Question 14

How Can We Reduce Risk of Overuse Injuries in Youth? (6-9)

Answer 14

6. All youth should follow healthy lifestyle habits (i.e. nutrition, hydration, sleep quality).
7. Youth sport coaches should participate in continued professional development programs.
8. Coaches should support and encourage all children and adolescent to participate ,but should not excessively pressure them too perform at a level beyond their capabilities.
9. Children in most sports should be encouraged to participate in a variety of sports and activities.

Question 15

Youth RT Guidelines (1-6)

Answer 15

1. Each child should understand benefits and risks with RT.
2. Competent and caring fitness pros should supervise training sessions.
3. Exercise environment should be safe.
4. Dynamic warmup exercises should be performed before RT.
5. Static stretching should be performed after RT.
6. Carefully monitor each child’s tolerance to the exercise stress.

Question 16

Youth RT Guidelines (7-13)

Answer 16

7. Begin with light loads.
8. Increase resistance gradually (e.g. 5%-10%) as strength improves.
9. Depending on needs and goals, 1-3 sets of 6-15 reps on various exercises.
10. Adv. multi-joint exercises may be incorporated into the program if appropriate loads are used and focus is on proper form.
11. Two or three nonconsecutive training sessions per week are recommended.
12. Adult spotters should be nearby to actively assist the child.
13. RT program should be systematically varied throughout the year.

Question 17

Sex Differences - Female Athletes Body Size and Composition

Answer 17

Before puberty there are essentially no differences in height, weight, and body size between boys and girls.
During puberty, estrogen causes BF increase and breast development.
Adult women tend to have more BF and less muscle and bone than adult males.
Women tend to be lighter in body weight than men.

Question 18

Sex Differences - Female Athletes Strength and Power Output

Answer 18

In terms of absolute strength, women generally have about 2/3 the strength of men.
Women lower body strength is closer to mens.
If comparisons are made relative to fat-free mass or muscle cross-sectional area, difference in strength between men and women tend to disappear.

Question 19

General Sex Differences

Answer 19

In terms of absolute strength, women are generally weaker than men because of their lower quantity of muscle. Relative to muscle cross-sectional area, no differences in strength exist between the sexes, which indicates that muscle quality is not sex specific.

Question 20

Responsiveness to RT in Women - RT Females

Answer 20

Women can increase their strength at the same rate as men or faster.
Relative short-term gains are similar to men.

Question 21

Female Athlete Triad - RT Females

Answer 21

Refers to interrelationships between energy availability, menstrual function, and bone mineral density, is a health risk for female athletes who train for prolonged periods of time with insufficient caloric intake to meet the high energy expenditure of training and adaptations.
Ensure nutritional intake supports the training prescription in order to stimulate adaptation and facilitate recovery when programming for females.

Question 22

Amenorrhea

Answer 22

Absence of a menstrual cycle for more than 3 months.

Question 23

Program Design Considerations for Women - RT Females

Answer 23

It’s important for S&C pros to be aware of the increasing incidence of knee injures in female athletes, particularly in sports such as soccer and basketball.

Question 24

ACL injuries in Females

Answer 24

Female athletes are 6x more likely to incur an ACL tear than male athletes.
Most ACL injuries are non-contact (i.e. deceleration, lateral pivoting or landing).
Programming focus on supporting structures and increasing neuromuscular control of knee joint.

Question 25

Upper Body Strength Development - RT Females

Answer 25

Since upper body strength is relatively less than men, adding in 1-2 more exercises or 1-2 more sets may be beneficial for upper body strength development.
Benefits from incorporating various snatches, cleans, and derivative weightlifting movements into training.

Question 26

Hoe Can Female Athletes Reduce Their Risk of ACL Injury?

Answer 26

1. Recommend preparticipation screening by sports doctor.
2. Encourage female athletes full participation in year-round conditioning including RT, Plyos, speed and agility, flexibility.
3. Ensure females learn correct movements.
4. Dynamic and specific warmup before training/competition.
5. Provide augmented feedback within training sessions to optimize skill transfer and enhance biomechanics related to ACL injury.
6. Encourage children to participate in injury prevention programs.
7. Recommend appropriate clothing and footwear during practice and games.

Question 27

Age Related Changes in Musculoskeletal Health - Older Adults

Answer 27

Loss of bone and muscle with age increases risk for falls, hip fractures, and long-term disability.
Bones become fragile with age because of a decrease in bone mineral content that causes an increase in bone porosity.
After age 30, there’s a decrease in cross-sectional areas of individual muscles, reduced tendon compliance, decrease in muscle density, and an increase in intramuscular fat.

Question 28

Osteopenia

Answer 28

Bone mineral density between -1 and -2.5 standard deviations (SD).

Question 29

Osteoporosis

Answer 29

Bone mineral density below -2.5 SD of the young adult mean.

Question 30

Sarcopenia

Answer 30

Loss of muscle mass and strength associated with advancing age.
This is largely the cause for physical inactivity.

Question 31

Age-Related Changes in Neuromotor Function

Answer 31

Seniors are at increased risk of falling.
Falls can lead to permanent disability, institutionalization, and fatalities.
Decreases in muscle strength and power, reaction time, and impaired balance and postural stability.
Seniors rely on increased muscle cocontraction (contact with ground), and less pre-activation (fast reflexes for preparing for ground contact).

Question 32

Physical activity interventions fro improving neuromotor function and preventing falls in seniors

Answer 32

Seniors must engage wit with, and adhere to, multidimensional programs that incorporate elements of both RT and balance training.
Simply increasing physical activity will not prevent falls on its own.

Question 33

Responsiveness to RT in Older Adults - RT for Older Adults

Answer 33

Though aging is associated with a number of undesirable changes in body comp., older men and women maintain their ability to make significant improvements in strength and functional ability.
Booth aerobic and RT are beneficial for older adults, but old RT can increase muscular strength and muscle mass.
Bone density will return to preexercise levels during periods of inactivity.
RT regularly can offset age-related losses.

Question 34

What are the Safety Recommendations for RT for Older Adults? (9)

Answer 34

1. Prescreening.
2. 5-10 min. warmup.
3. Static stretching before, after, (or both) RT sessions.
4. Use resistance that does not overtax musculoskeletal system.
5. Avoid Valsalva maneuver.
6. Allow 48-72 hours of recovery between exercise sessions.
7. Perform all exercises within ROM that is pain free.
8. Prefer free weights over machines.
9. Receive exercise instruction from qualified instructors.

Question 35

Progressing Healthy Older Adults in RT

Answer 35

Gradually progress from 1 set of 8-12 reps at low intensity (40-50% 1RM) to higher training volumes and intensities – 3 x 6-10 reps @60-80%

Question 36

Increasing Power in Healthy Older Adults

Answer 36

1-3 sets x 6-10 reps @40-60% 1RM (light-moderate load) with high repetition velocity.