Chapter 8 Psychology 175.102 Flashcards
Mental images
Visual representations such as the image of the street or a circle
Thinking
Manipulating mental representations for a purpose
Mental models
Representations that describe, explain or predict the way things work
Categories
Groupings based on common properties
Concept
A mental representation of a category
Defining features
Qualities that are necessary in order to classify the object is a member of the category
Well defined concepts
Having properties that clearly set him apart from other concepts
Prototype
An abstraction across many instances of a category
Basic level of categorisation
The broadest, most inclusive level at which objects share common attributes that are distinctive of the concept
Subordinate level of categorisation
The level of categorisation below the basic level in which more specific attributes are shared by members of a category.
Superordinate level of categorisation
An abstract level in which members of a category share few common features
Reasoning
The process by which people generate and evaluate arguments and beliefs, typically to try to solve problems
Inductive reasoning
Reasoning from specific observations to more general propositions
Deductive reasoning
Logical reasoning that draws a conclusion from a set of assumptions or premises that are based on the rules of logic
Syllogism
Consists of two premises that lead to a logical conclusion
Analogical reason
The process by which people understand a novel situation in terms of a familiar one
Problem solving
The process of transforming one situation into another to meet a goal.
eg. Initial unsatisfactory state to problem resolved (goal state)
Subgoals
Mini goals on the way to achieving the broader goal
Problem-solving strategies
Techniques that serves as guides for solving a problem
Algorithms
Systematic procedures that inevitably produce a solution to a problem
Mental simulation
Imagining the steps involved in solving a problem mentally before actually undertaking them
Functional fixedness
The tendency for people to ignore other possible functions of an object when they have fixed function in mind
Mental set
The tendency to keep using the same problem solving techniques that have worked in the past
Confirmation bias
The tendency for people to search for confirmation of what they already believe
Decision-making
The process by which an individual weighs the pros and cons of different alternatives in order to make a choice
Weighted utility value
Indicates not just how well an option meet certain criteria, but how important that criteria is to making the decision
Expected utility
A combined judgement of the weighted utility and the expected probability of obtaining that outcome
Heuristics
Cognitive shortcuts for selecting among alternatives without carefully considering each one
Representativeness heuristic
In which people categorise by matching the similarity of an object or incident to a prototype but ignore information about its probability of occurring
Availability heuristic
In which people infer the frequency of something on the basis of how readily it comes to mind
Bounded rationality
People are rational within the bounds imposed by their environment, goals and abilities
Explicit cognition
Involves conscious manipulation of representations
Implicit cognition
Cognition outside of awareness
Language
The system of symbols, sounds, meanings and rules for their combination that constitutes the primary mode of communication among humans
Whorfian hypothesis of linguistic relativity
The idea that language shapes thought
Phonemes
The smallest units of sound that constitutes speech, these are strung together to create meaningful utterances
Morphemes
The smallest units of meaning in language
Phrases
Groups of words that act as a unit to convey a meaning
Sentences
Words and phrases are combined into sentences, organised sequences of words that express a thought or intention
Syntax
The rules that govern the placement of words and phrases in a sentence
Semantics
The rules that govern the meanings of morphemes, words, phrases and sentences
Pragmatics of language
The way language is used and understood in everyday life
Discourse
The way people ordinarily speak, hear, read and write interconnected sentences
Non-verbal communication
Body language, gestures, touch, physical distance, facial expressions and non-verbal vocalisations
Universal grammar
An innate, shared set of linguistic principles. Proposed by Chomsky
Language acquisition device (LAD)
Chomsky proposed that humans are born with an innate set of neural structures for acquiring language.
Babbling
The baby’s first recognisable speech sounds
Telegraphic speech
Utterances composed of only the most essential words for meaning
