Chapter 2 Psychology 175.102 Flashcards
Psychological Research Methods
- Experimental 2. Descriptive - case study - naturalistic observation - survey research 3. Correlational
Features shared by psychological research
- Theoretical framework 2. Standardised procedures 3. Generalisability 4. Objective measurement
Description
Being able to summarise data your research has produced to make the events and relationships easily understandable
Prediction
Using the outcome of research to identify what would happen given the same circumstances
Understanding
Identifying why that would happen
Evaluating a study
- Does the theoretical framework make sense? 2. Is the sample adequate and appropriate? 3. Are the measures and procedures adequate? 4. Are the data conclusive? 5. Are the broader conclusions warranted? 6. Does the study say anything meaningful? 7. Is the study ethical?
Theory
A systematic way of organising and explaining observations.
Hypothesis
A tentative belief about the relationship between two or more variables.
Variable
Phenomena that vary or change across individuals or circumstances
Independent variable
The variables be experimenter manipulates
Dependent variable
The participants responses
Conditions
Different possible variations of the independent variable presented to the participant
Measure
A concrete way of assessing a variable
Confounding variable
A variable that could produce effects that might be confused with the effects of the independent variable
Reliability
A measures ability to produce consistent results
Retest reliability
The tendency of a test to yield relative similar scores for the same individual over time.
Internal consistency
Several ways of asking the same question yield similar results.
Interrater reliability
If two different interviewers rate an individual both should give the person similar scores.
Validity
The measures ability to assess the variable it is supposed to assess.
Scientific approaches three goals
Description, Prediction and Understanding
Independent variable
Variables manipulated by the experimenter, which are outside the participants control.
Dependent variable
The response the experimenter measures to see whether the manipulation had an effect.
Code of ethics
- Informed consent 2. Ensure welfare of participants 3. No excessive cash rewards 4. Confidentiality 5. Inform participants afterward if deception was used 6. Minimise discomfort to animals 7. Ensure approval of appropriate body
Conditions
Different possible variations of the independent variable presented to the participant
Demand characteristics
The ways participants perceptions of the researchers goals influenced their responses
Continuous variable
A variable that can be placed on a continuum
Categorical variable
A variable comprised of groupings or categories
Standard procedures
Exposing participants in a study to as similar procedures as possible
Population
The larger group to whom findings should be applicable
Sample
A subgroup of the population
Representative
Conclusions drawn of the subgroup are likely to be true of the population. The sample accurately represents the population.
Generalisability
The applicability of the findings to the entire population of interest
Participants
Individuals who participate in the study
Sampling bias
Occurs when the sample is not representative of the population as a whole
Valid
To be valid the studying must meet two criteria. One. Convincingly test hypothesis. Two. Findings must be generalisable outside the laboratory.
Internal validity
Study must employ methods that convincingly test the hypothesis
External validity
The findings can be generalised to situations outside the laboratory
Validation
Demonstrating that a measure consistently relates to some objective criterion, or to other measures that have already demonstrated their validity
Error
Discrepancy between the phenomena is measured and the phenomena as it really is
Experimental research
Investigators manipulate some aspect of the situation and examine the impact on the way participants respond
Operationalising
Turning an abstract concept into a concrete variable defined by some set of actions or operations
Control group
A neutral condition in which participants are not exposed to manipulation
Blind studies
Participants are kept unaware of important aspects of the research
Placebo effect
Simply believing a treatment can be effective
Single blind study
Only the participants are kept blind
Double-blind study
Participants and researchers are both kept blind
Descriptive statistics
Away of describing the findings that summarises the essential features
Inferential statistics
Drawing inferences from the sample to the population as a whole
Quasiexperimental
Shares the logic in many features of the experimental method but does not allow as much control over variables
Descriptive research
Describes phenomena as they already exist rather than manipulating variables to test the effects
Case study
An in-depth observation of one person or a small group
Researcher bias
Results in systematic errors in measurement due to investigators seeing what they expect to see
Naturalistic observation
The in-depth observation of a phenomena in its natural setting
Survey research
Asking questions of a large sample of people
Interview
Researchers ask questions using a standard format
Questionnaire
Participants fill out themselves
Random sample
A sample selected from the general population in a relatively arbitrary way that does not introduce any systematic bias
Stratified random sample
Specifies the percentage of people to be drawn from each category of the population, then randomly select participants
Correlational research
Assesses the degree to which two variables are related, in an effort to see whether knowing the value of one can lead to prediction of the other
Correlate
To assess the extent to which a variable being high or low on one measure predicts being high or low on the other
Correlation coefficient
Measures the extent to which two variables are related
Positive correlation
The higher individuals measure on one variable, the higher they are likely to measure on the other
Negative correlation
The higher individuals measure of one variable, the lower they are likely to measure on the other
Correlation matrix
A table representing the correlations among a number of variables
Neroimaging techniques
Uses computer programs to convert data taken from brain scanning devices into visual images of the brain
Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Measures electrical activity towards the surface of the brain
Computerised axial tomography (CAT)
Rotating x-ray tube around a person’s head, producing a series of x-ray pictures
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Uses magnets instead of x-rays
Positron emission tomography (PET)
Requires a small injection of radioactive glucose into the bloodstream. The computer images these as they are used by the brain
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
Uses MRI to watch the brain as individuals carry out tasks
Informed consent
The participants ability to agree or refuse to participate in a study
Deception
We participants are not informed of the aims of the investigation until the end of the study
Critical thinking
Carefully examining and analysing information to judge its value as well is considering other views and explanations before accepting the truthfulness of that information
Open-mindedness
Considering all sides of an issue
Objectivity
Taking an impartial and disinterested approach
Scepticism
Always questioning assumptions or conclusions and analysing whether the evidence presented supports the results
Straw man approach
Fallacy that involves authors deliberately attacking an opposing argument in order to strengthen their own
Appeals to popularity
The fallacy that popular and widespread arguments are true
Appeals to authority
The fallacy that an argument must be true because of the authority of the person making it
Arguments directed at the person
The approach in which authors try to strengthen their own position by attacking the authors of alternative arguments
Context of justification
In which hypothesis are tested empirically
Context of discovery
In which phenomena are observed, hypothesis framed and theories built
Descriptive statistics 2
Summarise qualitative data in an easily understandable form
Inferential statistics 2
Tells whether the results reflect anything other than chance
Histogram
A graph that plots ranges of scores along the X axis and the frequency of scores in each range on the Y axis
Frequency distribution
A method of organising data to show how frequently participants received each of the many possible schools
Measures of central tendency
Provide an index of the way a typical participant responded to a measure
Mean
The statistical average of the scores of all participants
Median
The score that falls in the middle of the distribution of scores
Mode
The most common score observed in the sample
Variability
The extent to which participants tend to differ from one another
Range
Shows the difference between the highest and lowest scores
Standard deviation
The amount the average participant deviates from the mean of the sample
Normal distribution
Scores of most participants fall within a bell curve distribution and progressively fewer scores at either extreme
Percentile scores
Indicate the number of scores that fall below a score
Statistical significance
A test to determine whether positive results have occurred simply by chance
Probability value (p-value)
Represents the probability that positive findings were chance. The smaller value the more certain the results
Effect size
Required to understand the magnitude of the experimental effect or strength of relationship
Chi-square test (x2)
Compares the observed data with the results that would be expected by chance and tests the likelihood that the differences between observed and expected are accidental
T-test
Comparing the means scores of two groups
Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
Used to compare means test of two or more groups, to assess the likelihood that mean differences between the groups occurred by chance
