Chapter 8 - Communication and Decision Making Flashcards
1
Q
Communication
A
- the use of symbols to transfer the meaning
- increasingly carried out via social media, blogs, wikis, texting, smart phones, and e-mail of information
- communication among people does not depend on technology but rather on forces in people and their surroundings. It is a process that occurs within people
2
Q
Nonverbal Communication
A
- sometimes called the “silent language”
- nonword human responses (such as gestures, facial expressions) and the perceived characteristics of the environment through which the human verbal and nonverbal messages are transmitted
3
Q
Body Language
A
- Body movements convey meanings and messages.
- This form of communication includes facial expressions and what people do with their eyes, feet, hands, and posture
- People concentrate on hiding their tension from the waist up. Their real state is revealed in their legs and feet
4
Q
Suggestions to improve nonverbal communication
A
- Look at what is happening in the situation. When nonverbal behavior is an emotional response, it reflects what is going on at the moment and can be used to better understand the person’s nonverbal behavior.
- Consider the discrepancies between the nonverbal behavior and the verbal statements. If there is a mismatch, then this should be a signal for closer examination of what is going on. Sometimes the nonverbal signals are more accurate than the verbal ones.
- Watch for subtleties in the nonverbal behavior. For example, the difference between a real smile and a fake one can usually be detected.
5
Q
Interpersonal Communication
A
- the major emphasis is on transferring information from one person to another
- Human communication has always been central to organizational action. Today, the introduction of various sophisticated electronic communication technologies and the demand for faster and better forms of interaction are visibly influencing the nature of [interpersonal] communication
6
Q
“The Director” Communication Style
A
- short attention span
- processes information very quickly
- interested only in the bottom line
- present with a bulleted list
- forget all of the background information
7
Q
“The Free Spirit” Communication Style
A
- creative, big-picture person
- likes to consider alternative approaches to doing things
- not very good on followthrough
- likes to consider alternatives before making a decision
- be patient
- be prepared for changes in direction
8
Q
“The Humanist” Communication Style
A
- likes everyone to be happy
- concerned with feelings
- seeks consensus before action is taken
- patience and tact are needed to communicate with this person
9
Q
“The Historian” Communication Style
A
- likes the whole picture
- thrives on details
- likes a thorough analysis and background information
- does not jump from subject to subject
- focused on topic until exhaustively review is complete
10
Q
Feedback
A
- feedback makes communication a two-way process
- is a big problem with much of e-mail that turns out to be only one-way
11
Q
Feedback - Intention
A
- is directed toward improving job performance
- make employee a more valuable asset
- Should not compromise feeling of self-worth
- is not personal
12
Q
Feedback - Specificity
A
- Provide specific information to correct a situation
- Should not be general or vague
13
Q
Feedback - Description
A
- characterized as descriptive rather than evaluative
- It tells the employee what he or she has done in objective terms, rather than presenting a value judgment
14
Q
Feedback - Usefulness
A
- is information that an employee can use to improve performance
15
Q
Feedback - Timeliness
A
- As a rule, the more immediate the feedback, the better.
16
Q
Feedback - Readiness
A
- In order for feedback to be effective, employees must be ready to receive it
17
Q
Feedback - Clarity
A
- ask the recipient to restate the major points of the discussion
18
Q
Feedback - Validity
A
- In order for feedback to be effective, it must be reliable and valid
19
Q
Interpersonal vs. Interactive Communication
A
- interpersonal communication is at the micro, individual level
- interactive communication is at the macro, organizational level
20
Q
Horizontal Communication
A
- is the transmission of information between people, divisions, departments or units within the same level of organizational hierarchy.
- the real key to horizontal communication is still found in people and behaviors
21
Q
Vertical Communication
A
- is the transmission of information between different levels of the organizational hierarchy
- In most cases the vertical communication process still overshadows the horizontal
22
Q
Interactive Communication
A
- is an exchange of ideas where both participants, whether human, machine or art form, are active and can have an effect on one another. It is a dynamic, two-way flow of information
- While there was far more communication downward (between managers and their employees) than upward (between managers and top managers above them in the organization), there were no specific differences determined by the initiation of interaction
23
Q
Four Purposes of Interactive Communication
A
- Task coordination
- Problem-solving
- Information sharing
- Conflict resolution
24
Q
The Role of the Informal Organization
A
- The informal system of communication can be used to spread false rumors and destructive information, or it can effectively supplement the formal channels of communication.
(1) the hallway takes away some of the sense of hierarchy, making the participants seem more equal and
(2) the hallway invites multiple perspectives— anyone who wanders by can join in, adding their ideas to the mix - the informal system has negative or positive functions for the organization depends largely on the goals of the person doing the communicating
- personal goals may or may not be compatible with organizational goals
- critics of the grapevine because its speed makes control of false rumors and information
- Important relevant information that requires quick responsive action by lower-level personnel may be more effectively handled by the informal system than by the formal system
25
Decision Making
- choosing between alternatives
- when a manager plans, organizes and controls, he or she is making decisions
- "The processes of decision … are largely techniques for narrowing choice." by Chester Barnard
26
Three Phases of the Decision Making Process
| by Herbert A. Simon
1. Intelligence activity - searching the environment for conditions calling for decision making
2. Design activity - inventing, developing, and analyzing possible courses of action
3. Choice activity - selecting a particular course of action from among those available
27
```
Three Phases of the Decision Making Process
by Mintzberg (more organizationally based)
```
1. The identification phase, during which recognition of a problem or opportunity arises and a diagnosis is made. It was found that severe, immediate problems did not receive a very systematic, extensive diagnosis but that mild problems did.
2. The development phase, during which there may be a search for existing standard procedures or solutions already in place or the design of a new, tailor-made solution. It was found that the design process was a groping, trial-and-error process in which the decision makers had only a vague idea of the ideal solution.
3. The selection phase, during which the choice of a solution is made. There are three ways of making this selection: by the judgment of the decision maker, on the basis of experience or intuition rather than logical analysis; by analysis of the alternatives on a logical, systematic basis; and by bargaining when the selection involves a group of decision makers and all the political maneuvering that this entails. Once the decision is formally accepted, an authorization is made
28
Rationality
- If appropriate means are chosen to reach desired ends, the decision is said to be rational
- very difficult to separate means from ends
29
Means-Ends Chain
| or Hierarchy
- an apparent end may be only a means for some future end
- the means-end hierarchy is seldom an integrated, completely connected chain. Often the connection between organization activities and ultimate objectives is obscure, or these ultimate objectives are incompletely formulated, or there are internal conflicts and contradictions among the ultimate objectives, or among the means selected to attain them.
30
Escalation of Commitment
- is a human behavior pattern in which an individual or group facing increasingly negative outcomes from a decision, action, or investment nevertheless continues the behavior instead of altering course.
- Double down on a bad choice
31
Four reasons for Escalation of Commitment
1. Project characteristics - primary reason: project characteristics such as delayed return on investment or obvious temporary problems
2. Psychological determinants - Once the decision goes bad, the manager may have information processing errors (use biased factors or take more risks than are justified). Also, because the decision maker is now ego-involved, negative information is ignored and defensive shields are set up.
3. Social forces - save face or peer pressure
4. Organizational determinants - breakdown in communication, dysfunctional politics, and resistance to change
32
Decision-Making Styles
1. Charismatics - enthusiastic, captivating, talkative, dominant
2. Thinkers - cerebral, intelligent, logical, academic
3. Skeptics - demanding, disruptive, disagreeable, rebellious
4. Followers - responsible, cautious, brand-driven, bargain-conscious
5. Controllers - logical, unemotional, sensible, detail oriented, accurate, analytical
33
Value Orientation Dimension
focuses on the decision maker’s concern for task and technical matters as opposed to people and social concerns
34
Tolerance for Ambiguity
measures how much the decision the maker needs structure and control (a desire for low ambiguity) as opposed to being able to thrive in uncertain situations (a desire for high ambiguity).
35
Four Styles of Decision Making
1. Directive Style
2. Analytical Style
3. Conceptual Style
4. Behavioral Style
36
Directive Style
- Decision-makers with a directive style have a low tolerance for ambiguity and are oriented toward task and the technical concerns
- tend to be efficient, logical, pragmatic, and systematic in their approach to problem-solving
- focus on facts and get things done quickly
- action-oriented, tend to have a very short-run focus, like to exercise power, want to be in control, and, in general, display an autocratic leadership style
37
Analytical Style
- high tolerance for ambiguity and a strong task and technical orientation
- like to analyze situations (over-analyze)
- take a long time to make decisions
- respond well to new or uncertain situations
- tend to have an autocratic leadership style
38
Conceptual Style
- high tolerance for ambiguity and strong people and social concerns
- take a broad perspective in solving problems and like to consider many options
- discuss with many people to gather information then rely on intuition to make a decision
- willing to take risks; good at creative solutions
- can foster an idealistic and indecisive approach
39
Behavioral Style
- low tolerance for ambiguity and strong people and social concerns
- tend to work well with others and like situations in which opinions are openly exchanged
- receptive to suggestions, are supportive and warm, and prefer verbal to written information
- tend to avoid conflict; concerned with keeping everyone happy
- have a difficult time saying no to people
- do not like making tough decisions especially if someone is unhappy.
40
Creativity is a function of these major components:
- expertise: Knowledge technical, procedural, and intellectual
- creative-thinking skills: flexibility and imagination in problem-solving
- motivation: the inner passion to solve the problem at hand
41
Tacit Knowledge
This type of knowledge is not readily explainable, is acquired through observation and experience, and seems to be in the unconscious
42
Dimensions of the Creative Process
- Divergent thinking: a person’s ability to generate novel, but still appropriate, responses to questions and problems.
- Cognitive complexity: refers to a person’s use of and preference for elaborate, intricate, and complex stimuli and thinking patterns. Tend to have such cognitive complexity and display a wide range of interests, are independent, and are interested in philosophical or abstract problems
43
Group Decision Making
1. The majority-wins scheme: Majority wins
2. The truth-wins scheme: recognition that one approach is objectively correct
3. The two-thirds majority scheme: juries
4. The first-shift rule: the group tends to adopt the decision that reflects the first shift in opinion expressed by any group member
