Chapter 10 - Power and Politics

Question 1

Definition of Power

There is a ton of other definitions, see page 281

Answer 1

Chester Barnard defined power in terms of “informal authority,” and many organizational sociologists define authority as “legitimate power.”

• Authority legitimatizes and is a source of power
• Power need not be legitimate
• The polar opposite, power, is the pursuit of individual or particularistic goals associated with group compliance

Question 2

Authority

Chester Barnard

Answer 2

• the character of a communication (order) in a formal organization by virtue of which it is accepted by a contributor to or ‘member’ of the organization as governing the action he contributes
• What legitimizes authority is the promotion or pursuit of collective goals that are associated with group consensus.

Question 3

Influence

Answer 3

• broader in scope than power
• the ability to alter other people in general ways, such as by changing their satisfaction and performance
• is more closely associated with leadership than power is, but both obviously are involved in the leadership process

Question 4

Authority vs. Power vs. Influence

Answer 4

• Authority is different from power because of its legitimacy and acceptance,
• Influence is broader than power, but it is so conceptually close that the two terms can be used interchangeably

Question 5

Five Classic Types of Power

Answer 5

1. Reward
2. Coercive
3. Legitimate
4. Referent
5. Expert

Question 6

Reward Power

Answer 6

• based on a person’s ability to control resources and reward others
• the target of this power must value these rewards
• pay increases, promotions, valuable information, favorable work assignments, more responsibility, new equipment, praise, feedback, and recognition

Question 7

Coercive Power

Answer 7

• source of power depends on fear
• ability to inflict punishment or aversive consequences
• or to make threats that the other person believes will result in punishment or undesirable outcomes
• subordinates are less likely to retaliate against abusive supervisors due to coercive power
• ability to fire or demote people who work for them, or
  dock their pay

Question 8

Legitimate Power

Answer 8

• stems from the internalized values of the other persons that give the legitimate right to the agent to influence them
• almost identical to authority and is closely aligned with both reward and coercive power because the person with legitimacy is also in a position to reward and punish
• is unlike reward and coercive power in that it does not depend on the relationships with others but rather on the position or role that the person holds

Question 9

Three Sources of Legitimate Power

Answer 9

1. The prevailing cultural values of a society, organization, or group determine what is legitimate
2. The accepted social structure
3. Being designated as the agent or representative of a powerful person or group (i.e. Elected Officials)

Question 10

Referent Power

Answer 10

• the desire on the part of the other persons to identify with the agent wielding power
• People want to identify with the powerful person
• Others grant the person power because he or she is attractive and has desirable resources or personal characteristics (Celebrities)

Question 11

Expert Power

Answer 11

• based on the extent to which others attribute knowledge and expertise to the power holder
• Experts are perceived to have knowledge or understanding only in certain well-defined areas
• the target must perceive the agent to be credible, trustworthy, and relevant before expert power is granted
• staff specialists have expert power in their functional areas but not outside them

Question 12

Credibility

Answer 12

• the person must really know what he or she is talking about and be able to show tangible evidence of this knowledge.
• significant positive impact that credibility has
  on perceived power

Question 13

Information Power

Answer 13

• A person who controls the flow of information and/or interprets data before it is presented to others has such information power
• Information power is distinguished from expert power because the individual merely needs to be in the “right place” to affect the flow and/or distribution of information, rather than having some form of expertise over the generation or interpretation of the information

Question 14

Power Relationships

Answer 14

• the sources of power are interrelated
• for example, the use of coercive power by managers may reduce their referent power
• high coercive and reward power may lead to reduced expert power
• the same person may exercise different types of power under different circumstances and at different times

Question 15

Contingency Approaches to Power

Answer 15

1. Control over resources such as budgets, physical facilities, and positions that can be used to cultivate allies and supporters
2. Control over or extensive access to information about the organization’s activities, about the preferences and judgments of others, about what is going on, and about who is doing it
3. Formal authority

Question 16

Contingency Conclusions to Power

Answer 16

1. The greater the professional orientation of group members, the greater relative strength referent power has in influencing them.
2. The less effort and interest high-ranking participants are willing to allocate to a task, the more likely lower ranking participants are to obtain power relevant to this task

Question 17

Influenceability of the Targets of Power

Answer 17

• Power involves a reciprocal relationship between the agent and the target, important characteristics of the influenceability of targets:
  1. Dependency
  2. Uncertainty
  3. Personality
  4. Intelligence
  5. Gender
  6. Age
  7. Culture

Question 18

Influenceability of Dependency

Answer 18

when a target cannot escape a relationship, perceives no alternatives, or values the agent’s rewards as unique

Question 19

Influenceability of Uncertainty

Answer 19

the more uncertain people are about the appropriateness or correctness of a behavior, the more likely they are to be influenced to change that behavior

Question 20

Influenceability of Personality

Answer 20

• people who cannot tolerate ambiguity or who are highly anxious are more susceptible to influence, and those with high needs for affiliation are more susceptible to group influence
• both positive and negative relationships have been found between self-esteem and influenceability.

Question 21

Influenceability of Intelligence

Answer 21

• There is no simple relationship between intelligence and influenceability. Highly intelligent people may be more willing to listen, but, because they also tend to be held in high esteem, they also may be more resistant to influence

Question 22

Influenceability of Gender

Answer 22

As women’s and society’s views of the role of women are changing, there is less of a distinction of influenceability by gender

Question 23

Influenceability of Age

Answer 23

Social psychologists have generally concluded that susceptibility to influence increases in young children up to about the age of eight or nine and then decreases with age until adolescence when it levels off

Question 24

Influenceability of Culture

Answer 24

The cultural values of a society have a tremendous impact on the influenceability of its people

Question 25

Overall Contingency Model for Power - Compliance

Answer 25

• the target will comply in order to gain a favorable reaction or avoid a punishing one from the agent
• This is the process that most supervisors in work organizations must rely on
• In order for compliance to work supervisors must be able to reward and punish and keep an eye on them

Question 26

Overall Contingency Model for Power - Identification

Answer 26

• People will identify not in order to obtain a favorable reaction from the agent, as in compliance, but because it is self-satisfying to do so
• in order for the identification process to work, the agent must have referent power—be very attractive to the target—and be salient

Question 27

Overall Contingency Model for Power - Internalize

Answer 27

• People will internalize because of compatibility with their own value structure.
• in order for people to internalize, the agent must have expert or legitimate power (credibility) and, in addition, be relevant
• this process of power is most effective
• This internalization would be especially desirable in today’s highly autonomous, flat organizations with cultures of openness, empowerment, and trust

Question 28

McClelland - Two Kinds of Power

Answer 28

1. Personal Power

2. Social Power

Question 29

Personal Power

Answer 29

• People with this personalized power concern are more apt to speed, have accidents, and get into physical fights.
• Power-hungry
• negative use of power
• primarily looking out for themselves and how they can get ahead
• they are”I” oriented
• is primitive and does indeed have negative consequences

Question 30

Social Power

Answer 30

• concern for group goals, for finding those goals that will move people
• helping the group to formulate them
• taking some initiative in providing members of the group with the means of achieving such goals
• giving group members the feeling of strength and competence they need to work hard for such goals
• “We” oriented
• social power managers are quite effective

Question 31

Negative Use of Power

Answer 31

• could show up in cases of sexual harassment
• Unwelcome conduct of a sexual nature takes place when someone uses coercive power to threaten another with negative consequences if they do not submit to sexual advances
• A hostile work environment (sexual jokes, leering, posters) is another inappropriate use of one’s power over another.

Question 32

Empowerment

Answer 32

• recognizing and releasing into the organization the power that people have in their wealth of useful knowledge and internal motivation
• the authority to make decisions within one’s area of responsibility without first having to get approval from someone else
• creates a shared purpose among employees, encouraging greater collaboration, and, most importantly, delivering enhanced value to customers

Question 33

Organizational Obstacles to Empowerment

Answer 33

• becoming impatient
• assuming employees have all the needed skills without first checking to make sure they are qualified
• creating confusion through contradictory rewards and the model’s behaviors

Question 34

How to Implement Empowerment

Answer 34

• there must be a linkage of the power with self-reliance, managerial authority, and expecting individual contributor commitment
• must become embedded in an organization’s cultural values operationalized through participation, innovation, trust, open communication, and accountability.
  (1) kaizen and “just do it” principles (JDIT)
  (2) trust-building

Question 35

Organizational Infidelity

Answer 35

• Violations of trust between employers and employees

- means the terms of the psychological contract that has been built have been ignored or have been broken

Question 36

Kaizen (continuous improvement)

Answer 36

(1) discard conventional, fixed ideas about doing work
(2) think about how to do it rather than why it cannot be done
(3) start by questioning current practices
(4) begin to make improvements immediately, even if only 50 percent of them can be completed
(5) correct mistakes immediately

Question 37

Optimal Trust

Answer 37

• occurs when managers and employees reach an agreement where trust is counterbalanced with distrust
  (always at least a degree of suspicion)
• distrust is low enough to not be disruptive and trust is strong enough to move forward with confidence

Question 38

Distrust

Answer 38

• is a major disruption to any change
• can negatively affect operations
• the effects linger for a long time

Question 39

Four Levels of Empowerment

Answer 39

(1) very little involvement, as reflected by traditional production-line firms
(2) moderate involvement, as reflected by organizations that employ suggestion programs and quality circles
(3) fairly substantial involvement, as reflected in organizations where jobs are designed so that employees can employ a variety of skills and have a great deal of autonomy in carrying out those jobs
(4) high involvement, as reflected by organizations in which personnel share information and work together to solve problems and complete tasks

Question 40

Realities of Politcal Power (Walter Nord)

Answer 40

1. Organizations are composed of coalitions that compete with one another for resources, energy, and influence.
2. Various coalitions will seek to protect their interests and positions of influence.
3. The unequal distribution of power itself has dehumanizing effects.
4. The exercise of power within organizations is one very crucial aspect of the exercise of power within the larger social system

Question 41

Politics in the workplace

Answer 41

• is not a simple process
• politics can vary from organization to organization and even from one subunit of an organization to another
• consists of intentional acts of influence undertaken by individuals or groups to enhance or protect their self-interest when conflicting courses of action are possible

Question 42

Organizational Politics Contributors

Answer 42

These factors imply that some organizations and subunits within the organization will be more political than others

1. Resources
2. Decisions
3. Goals
4. Technology and external environment
5. Change

Question 43

Organizational Politics Contributors - Resources

Answer 43

• There is a direct relationship between the amount of politics and how critical and scarce the resources are. - Politics will be encouraged when there is an infusion of new, “unclaimed” resources

Question 44

Organizational Politics Contributors - Decisions

Answer 44

• Ambiguous decisions, decisions on which there is lack of agreement, and uncertain, long-range strategic decisions lead to more politics than routine decisions

Question 45

Organizational Politics Contributors - Goals

Answer 45

• The more ambiguous and complex the goals become, the more politics there will be

Question 46

Organizational Politics Contributors - Technology and external environment

Answer 46

• The more complex the internal technology of the organization, the more politics there will be.
• The same is true of organizations operating in turbulent external environments.

Question 47

Organizational Politics Contributors - Change

Answer 47

• reorganization or a planned organization development (OD) effort or even an unplanned change brought about by external forces will encourage political maneuvering

Question 48

Political Strategies for Attaining Power in Organizations

Table 10.1 page 298

Answer 48

• Taking counsel
• Maintaining maneuverability
• Promoting limited communication
• Exhibiting confidence
• Controlling access to information and persons
• Making activities central and nonsubstitutable
• Creating a sponsor-protégé relationship
• Stimulating competition among ambitious subordinates
• Seek out and befriend the most influential individual in a situation
• Neutralizing potential opposition
• Making strategic replacements
• Committing the uncommitted
• Forming a winning coalition
• Developing expertise
• Building personal stature
• Employing trade-offs
• Interact with others with the goal of building a positive relationship
• Using research data to support one’s own point of view
• Restricting communication about real intentions
• Withdrawing from petty disputes

Question 49

Political Tactics Derived From Research

Table 10.2 page 299

Answer 49

1. Pressure tactics
2. Upward appeals
3. Exchange tactics
4. Coalition tactics
5. Ingratiating tactics
6. Rational persuasion
7. Inspirational appeals
8. Consultation tactics

Question 50

Pressure Tactics

Answer 50

Using demands, threats, or intimidation to convince you to comply with a request or to support a proposal

Question 51

Upward appeals

Answer 51

Persuading you that the request is approved by higher management, or appealing to higher management for
assistance in gaining your compliance with the request

Question 52

Exchange tactics

Answer 52

Making explicit or implicit promises that you will receive rewards or tangible benefits if you comply with a request or support a proposal, or reminding you of a prior favor to be reciprocated

Question 53

Coalition tactics

Answer 53

Seeking the aid of others to persuade you to do something, or using the support of others as an argument for you to agree also

Question 54

Ingratiating tactics

Answer 54

Seeking to get you in a good mood or to think favorably of the influence agent before asking you to do something

Question 55

Rational persuasion

Answer 55

Using logical arguments and factual evidence to persuade you that a proposal or request is viable and likely to result in the attainment of task objectives

Question 56

Inspirational appeals

Answer 56

Making an emotional request or proposal that arouses enthusiasm by appealing to your values and ideals or by increasing your confidence that you can do it.

Question 57

Consultation tactics

Answer 57

Seeking your participation in making a decision or planning how to implement a proposed policy, strategy, or change.

Question 58

Yukl’s Tactic Findings

Answer 58

• the consultation and rational persuasion tactics were used most frequently
• along with inspirational appeal were most effective

Question 59

Political Strategy: Maintain Alliances With Powerful People

Answer 59

• formation of coalitions (alliances) is critical to the
  acquisition of power in an organization
• members of other important departments or with members of upper-level management.
• Less obvious, alliance with boss’s secretary or assistant

Question 60

Political Strategy: Embrace or Demolish

Answer 60

• “He who has the gold makes the rules”
• senior managers in taken-over firms should either be warmly welcomed and encouraged or sacked (fired) because if they are sacked they are powerless, whereas if they are simply downgraded they will remain united and resentful and determined to get their own back

Question 61

Political Strategy: Divide and Rule

Answer 61

• those who are divided will not form coalitions themselves
• Example: Head of finance may generate conflict between marketing and operations in hopes of getting a bigger share of the limited budget from the president of the company

Question 62

Political Strategy: Manipulate Classified Information

Answer 62

• politically astute organization member carefully controls this information in order to gain power

Question 63

Political Strategy: Make a Quick Showing

Answer 63

• involves looking good on some project or task right away in order to get the right people’s attention
• Once this positive attention is gained, power is acquired to do other, usually more difficult and long-range, projects

Question 64

Political Strategy: Collect and Use IOUs

Answer 64

• This strategy says that the power seeker should do other people favors but should make it clear that they owe something in return and will be expected to pay up when asked

Question 65

Political Strategy: Avoid Decisive Engagement (Fabianism)

Answer 65

• This is a strategy of going slow and easy—an evolutionary rather than a revolutionary approach to change
• By not “ruffling feathers,” the power seeker can slowly but surely become entrenched and gain the cooperation and trust of others

Question 66

Political Strategy: Attacking and Blaming Others

Answer 66

• A political tactic some people try is to make others “look bad” in order to make themselves “look good.”

Question 67

Political Strategy: Progress One Step at a Time (Camel’s Head in the Tent)

Answer 67

• This strategy involves taking one step at a time instead of trying to push a whole major project or reorganization attempt.
• One small change can be a foothold that the power seeker can use as a basis to get other, more major things accomplished

Question 68

Political Strategy: Wait for a Crisis (Things Must Get Worse Before They Get Better)

Answer 68

• This strategy uses the reverse of “no news is good news”; that is, bad news gets attention.

Question 69

Political Strategy: Take Counsel with Caution

Answer 69

• This suggested political strategy is concerned more with how to keep power than with how to acquire it.
• allow subordinates to participate and to have this expectation may erode the power of the manager

Question 70

Be Aware of Resource Dependence

Answer 70

• Controlling the resources other persons or departments need creates considerable bargaining power

Question 71

General Statements about Political Tactics

Answer 71

• they are part of the games and turf wars that take place in today’s organizations
• On one level they are inevitable and cannot be prevented
• they are counterproductive and dysfunctional
• They can impede participation and empowerment programs and cause people to waste time and resources
• many managers believe they must take steps to stop the game playing and turf wars through trust-building and goal-sharing programs
• These efforts are especially warranted in a situation in which an organization is undergoing a crisis

Question 72

Effective Crisis Management

Answer 72

• Should include social-political and technological-structural interventions, mainly aimed at disruptive dysfunctional political agendas of individuals, groups, and/or departments in order to resolve the crisis

Question 73

Guidelines to Overcome the Negative Impact of Organizational Politics

Answer 73

1. Keep lines of communication open.
2. Role-model ethical and nonpolitical behaviors.
3. Be wary of game players acting only in their own self-interests.
4. Protect individual privacy interests.
5. Always use the value judgment “Is this fair?”