Chapter 8 Flashcards
cognition
prototype and hierarchy
hierarchy - starts broad and gets more specific; order of precedence in your brain; works most of the time, but not always; strategy to provide shortcuts, but doesn’t work all the time
prototype
representation of the best or most typical example of category (baseball is prototype concept of sports)
bird - what comes to mind? (example penguins and ostrich don’t always come to mind)
algorithm
step by step procedure, if followed correctly will always result in a solution
ex. 10 x 2 = 2 + 2 + 2…
(complex problems)
heuristic
there are three of these: working backward, means-end-analysis, creating subgoals
working backwards
start solution or known condition and works backwards through the problem
ex. want to be a dr., then contact institutes for admissions requirements, then change course work to get there
means-end-analysis
problem solver determines that measures will reduce the difference between the given states and the end goal
ex. 3.0 GPA requirement for sciences; input current people on how to get to that requirement; the means necessary to get to your end go
creating subgoals
large, complex problems broken down to smaller subgoals
ex. short term goals to reach the ultimate end
mental set
using past strategies that worked, but may not work this time, instead of trying a new approach
ex. solving arithmetic problems
nine-dot puzzle
functional fixedness
tendency to view objects functioning only in the capacity it was intended for; no alternative uses
ex. child uses sofa cushion to build a fort; butterknife in place of a screw driver; these are examples of overcoming this
ex. candle problem
confirmation bias
what we believe overrides what is presented as fact
ex.
availability heuristic
judging the likelihood of an event based on how easily recalled “available” other incidents of the event
ex. see an airplane crash on the news, next time fly, they think they will crash
All of the following examples of concepts except _____. a)trees; b) tools; c) blue; d) umbrellas
c) blue
When asked to describe the shape and color of an apple, you probably rely on a _____.
prototype
For most psychologists, consciousness is a(n) _____ concept, whereas for the layperson it is a(n) _____ concept. a) automatic, health; b) artificial, natural; c) mental image, natural; d) superordinate, basic-level
b) artificial, natural
List and describe the three stages of problem solving
preparation - identify the facts, determine which ones relevant, and define the goal
production - propose possible solutions or hypothesis
evaluation - determine whether the solutions meets the goal
Rosa is shopping in a new supermarket and wants to find a specific type of mustard. Which problem solving strategy would be most effective?
a) algorithm; b) heuristic; c) instinct; d) mental set
b) heuristic
language
form of communication using sounds and symbols combined according to specific rules
phoneme
smallest, basic unit of speech or sound
ex. phonetics (alphabet)
morpheme
smallest, meaningful unit of language formed from a combination of phonemes
ex. combining phonetics to make a word
grammar
system of rules used to create language and communications
syntax and semantics
semantics
set of rules for using words to create meanings or the study of meanings
(english class…learning the rules on how to use)
syntax
grammatical rules that specify how words and phrases should be arranged in a sentence to convey meanings
(context)
language acquisition device
according to Chomsky, an innate mechanism that enables a child to analyze language and extract the basic rules of grammar
8.3 Using hierarchies to improve your thinking
Superordinate category = animal
middle, basic-level category = bird dog
lowest subordinate category = parakeet, chicken boxer, poodle
8.4 Describe the three stages of problem solving
Step 1: Preparation = define ultimate goal, identify available options, separate the negotiable from non-negotiable
Step 2: Production = use algorithms and employ heuristics
Step 3: Evaluation = once possible solutions are tested, must evaluate to meet criteria in all three parts of step 1, if not, back to preparation stage
8.5 Identify five common barriers to problem solving
- mental sets
- functional fixedness
- confirmation bias
- availability heuristic
- representativeness heuristic
8.9 What is the language, and what are its basic building blocks?
building blocks: phonemes, morphemes, grammar, syntax, semantics
8.12 Contrast the “nativist” versus “nurturistic” views of language development.
nativist = language acquisitions device; "prewired" nurturistic = reinforcement and shaping (ex. rewards, punishments) needed to learn language
telegraphic speech
omits nonessential connecting words
ex. me want cookie; grandma go bye-bye
intelligence
fixed versus mind set; global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment; able to use thinking processes to cope with the world
fluid intelligence
aspects of innate intelligence, including reasoning abilities, memory, and speed of information processing, that are relatively independent of education and tend to decline as people age
crystallized intelligence
knowledge and skills gained through skills and experience and education that tend to increase over the life span
8.14 What is intelligence, and is it one or many abilities?
fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence is required
standardization
establishment of the norms and uniform procedures for giving and scoring a test
8.16 Describe how psychologist measure intelligence.
Stanford-Binet test = loosely based on first IQ test developed in France;
mental age was divided by chronological age (actual age in years) and multiplied by 100 (IQ = MA/CA x 100)
Wechsler tests = most widely used; WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale); verbal and performance scores;
Three advantages to WAIS:
1) the tests specifically designed for different age group
2) different abilities can be evaluated either separately or together
3) people unable to speak or understand english can still be tested
8.17 What are the three key requirements for a scientifically useful test?
1) standardization
2) reliability
3) validity
reliability
measure of the consistency and reproducibility of test scores when test is re-administered
validity
ability of the test to measure what it is designed to measure
The g factor, originally proposed by Spearman, is best defined as _____.
general intelligence
What is the difference between fluid and crystallized intelligence?
fluid intelligence - refers to reasoning ability, memory, and speed of information processing
crystallized intelligence - refers to the knowledge and skills gained through experience and education
_____ suggested people differ in their “profiles and intelligence” and that each person shows the unique pattern of strengths and weaknesses. a) Spearman; b) Binet; c) Wechsler; d) Gardner
d) Gardner
Explain Sternberg’s triarchic theory of successful intelligence
He proposed that intelligence is composed of three aspects: analytic, creative, and practical
What is the major differences of Sternberg’s, Binet’s and Wechsler’s intelligence scales?
Sternberg-Binet = single test for the different age levels Wechsler = consists of three separate tests for each age group
