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2019 Hole's Human A&P > Chapter 7 - Skeletal System > Flashcards

Chapter 7 - Skeletal System Flashcards

1
Q

acetabulum

acetabul-

A

vinegar cup

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2
Q

axial skeleton

ax-

A

axis

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3
Q

osteoblast

-blast

A

bud, a growing organism in early stages

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4
Q

canaliculus

canal-

A

channel

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5
Q

carpals

carp-

A

wrist

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6
Q

osteoclast

-clast

A

break

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7
Q

clavicle

clav-

A

bar

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8
Q

condyle

condyl-

A

knob, knuckle

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9
Q

coracoid process

corac-

A

a crow’s beak

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10
Q

cribriform plate

cribr-

A

sieve

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11
Q

crista galli

crist-

A

crest

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12
Q

fovea capitis

fov-

A

pit

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13
Q

glenoid cavity

glen-

A

joint socket

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14
Q

intervertebral disc

inter-

A

among, between

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15
Q

intramembranous bone

intra-

A

inside

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16
Q

lamella

lamell-

A

thin plate

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17
Q

external acoustic meatus

meat-

A

passage

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18
Q

odontoid process

odont-

A

tooth

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19
Q

hematopoiesis

poie-

A

make, produce

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20
Q

skeletal system

A
  • made up of bones, cartilages, and ligaments
  • provides framework, protects soft tissues, provides attachments for muscles, produces blood cells, store inorganic salts
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21
Q

Name the four types (and one subtype) of bones and where they’re found.

A
  • long: arms and legs
  • short: carpals and tarsals
    • sesamoid: patella
  • flat: skull bones
  • irregular: vertebrae, facial bones
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22
Q

long bones

A

bones with long longitudinal axes and expanded ends (humerus, femur, tibia, fibula, radius, ulna)

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23
Q

short bones

A

cubelike, with roughly equal lengths and widths (e.g. carpals and tarsals)

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24
Q

sesamoid bone

A

small, nodular and embedded in a tendon adjacent to a joint, where the tendon is compressed (e.g. patella)

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25
Q

flat bones

A

platelike structures with broad surfaces (e.g. ribs, scapulae, and some skull bones)

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26
Q

irregular bones

A

have a variety of shapes, and most are connected to several other bones (e.g. vertebrae and many facial bones)

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27
Q

Name the major parts of long bones.

A
  • epiphysis
  • articular cartilage
  • diaphysis
  • metaphysis
  • periosteum
  • compact bone
  • spongy bone
  • trabeculae
  • medullary cavity
  • endosteum
  • marrow
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28
Q

epiphysis

A

expanded portion at each end (proximal or distal) of a long bone that articulates with another bone

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29
Q

articular cartilage

A

layer of hyaline cartilage coating the articulating portion of the epiphysis

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30
Q

diaphysis

A

the shaft of a long bone

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31
Q

metaphysis

A

the widening part of a bone between the diaphysis and epiphysis

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32
Q

periosteum

A

a tough, vascular covering of dense connective tissue that encloses a bone

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33
Q

compact bone (cortical bone)

A

dense bone tissue in which cells are organized in osteons without apparent spaces

34
Q

spongy bone

A

bone that consists of bars and plates separated by irregular spaces; cancellous bone

35
Q

trabeculae

A

branching bony plate that separates irregular spaces within spongy bone

36
Q

medullary cavity

A

cavity containing marrow in the diaphysis of a long bone

37
Q

endosteum

A

tissue lining the medullary cavity in a bone

38
Q

marrow

A

connective tissue in bones that includes hematopoietic stem cells

39
Q

Name the microscopic parts of bone.

A
  • osteocyte
  • lacuna
  • central canal
  • canaliculi
  • osteon
  • perforating canal
40
Q

osteocyte

A

bone cell

41
Q

lacuna

A

small chamber or cavity

42
Q

central (Haversian) canal

A
  • canal through the center of an osteon, surrounded by concentric circles of osteocytes in lacunae; extends longitudinally through bone tissue
  • each contains blood vessels and nerve fibers surrounded by loose connective tissue
  • blood nourishes osteocytes via their gap junctions
43
Q

perforating canal

A
  • openings that connect central canals of osteons
  • contain larger blood vessels and nerves to provide communication between the osteons, medullary cavity, and surface of bone
44
Q

canaliculi

A
  • microscopic canal that connects lacunae of bone tissue, extend inward from the surface of trabeculae
  • osteocytes in spongy bone get nutrients from substances that diffuse into caniculi
45
Q

osteon

A
  • cylinder-shaped unit of bone consisting of osteocytes in lacune in concentric circles around a central canal
  • runs longitudinally through bone to provide strength
46
Q

How do bones form?

A

when bony tissue replaces existing connective tissue

47
Q

Where does intramembranous bone originate? What bones form this way? How do they form?

A
  • originates within sheetlike layers of unspecialized connective tissue
  • includes flat bones of the skull, clavicles, sternum, mandible, maxillae, and zygomatic bones
  1. dense networks of blood vessels supply the connective tissue, whose cells further differentiate into osteoblasts
  2. these deposit bony matrix around themselves, forming spongy bone in all directions until isolated in lacunae (osteocytes)
  3. some spongy bone becomes compact later as spaces fill with bony matrix
  4. connective tissue cells outside the bony matrix become the periosteum
48
Q

Where does endochondral bone originate? What bones start this way? How does it form? What’s different about long bones?

A
  • develop from masses of hyaline cartilage shaped like future bony structures (endochondral ossification)
  • most human bones are endochondral
  1. cartilage cells enlarge and their lacunae grow until surrounding matrix breaks down and cells die
  2. periosteum forms around decomposing cartilage, and blood vessels and partially differentiated connective tissue cells invade
  3. some invading cells become osteoblasts and form spongy bone, then osteoblasts deposit compact bone around the spongy bone
  • in long bones, ossification occurs from the diaphysis toward the epiphyses, and cartilage bands called epiphyseal plates form
49
Q

What is an epiphyseal plate? Describe its layers (4) and their functions.

A
  • band of cartilage between the epiphysis and diaphysis that is the site of active growth
  1. zone of resting cartilage: not active in growth process; anchors epiphyseal plate to epiphysis
  2. zone of proliferating cartilage: rows of young cells in mitosis; as new cells appear and matrix forms around them, the plate thickens
  3. zone of hypertrophic cartilage: older cells left behind when new ones form; oldest cells are calcified and die
  4. zone of calcified cartilage: thin layer composed of dead cells and calcified matrix; broken down by osteoclasts so osteoblasts can deposit bone tissue
50
Q

bone remodeling

A
  • process by which osteoclasts resorb bone tissue and osteoblasts deposit new bone over time on the surfaces of the periosteum and endosteum
  • spongy bone is remodeled more quickly than compact bone
  • 10-20% of the skeleton is replaced each year
51
Q

ossification timetable

A
  1. third month prenatal: ossification in long bones begins
  2. fourth month prenatal: most primary ossification centers have appeared in diaphyses
  3. birth to 5 yrs: secondary ossification centers appear in epiphyses
  4. 5-12 yrs (female) and 5-14 yrs (male): ossification rapidly spreads from ossification centers
  5. 15-18 yrs (female) and 17-20 yrs (male): upper limb bones and scapulae ossified
  6. 16-21 (female) and 18-23 (male): lower limb and hip bones ossified
  7. 21-23 (female) and 23-25 (male): sternum, clavicles, vertebrae ossified
  8. by 23 (female) and by 25 (male): nearly all bones ossified
52
Q

How does vitamin D affect bone development and growth? What does deficiency do?

A
  • it is necessary for the absorption of calcium in the small intestine
  • inorganic salt portion of bony matrix lacks calcium, making bones soft and deformed; called rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults
53
Q

vitamin D

A
  • scarce in foods except eggs
  • inactive form produced in skin when dehydrocholesterol is exposed to UV light; activated by liver and kidneys
54
Q

What roles do vitamins A and C play in bone development and growth? What happens without them?

A
  • vitamin A is necessary for osteoblast activity and deficiency can retard bone development
  • vitamin C is required for collagen synthesis, and deficiency makes bones abnormally slender and fragile
55
Q

Name other bone proteins less abundant than collagen and their functions.

A
  • osteocalcin: activated by vitamin K to bind calcium
  • osteonectin: binds hydroxyapatite and collagen and stimulates mineral crystal deposition
  • osteopontin speeds bone remodeling
  • bone morphogenetic proteins include growth factors that induce bone and cartilage formation
56
Q

What hormones affect bone growth and development? How?

A
  • growth hormone (pituitary gland): stimulates division of cartilage cells in epiphyseal plates; too much means pituitary gigantism and too little means pituitary dwarfism
  • thyroxine (thyroid): stimulates replacement of cartilage in epiphyseal plates with bone tissue by increasing cellular metabolism and thus osteoblast activity
  • parathyroid hormone (parathyroid glands): stimulates increase in number and activity of osteoclasts
  • testosterone and estrogen: promote formation of bone tissue and stimulate ossification in epiphyseal plates; estrogen works more better for this
57
Q

How does physical stress affect bone growth?

A

it stimulates hardening and thickening, and lack of physical stress (exercise) allows bone tissue to waste

58
Q

What do bones do?

A
  • support, protect, move
  • form blood cells
  • store inorganic salts
59
Q

What is hematopoiesis (hemopoiesis)? Where is it carried out in various stages of life?

A
  • blood cell formation
  1. starts in yolk sac outside the embryo
  2. later happens in liver and spleen
  3. eventually done in bone marrow
60
Q

Describe bone marrow.

A
  • a soft, netlike mass of connective tissue in medulllary cavities of long bones, irregular spaces of spongy bone, and larger central canals of compact bone
  • two types: red and yellow
  • red marrow forms erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets; the color comes from oxygen-carrying pigment hemoglobin
  • yellow marrow replaces some red marrow with age; stores fat and does not produce blood cells; can become red marrow if blood is deficient
61
Q

What’s important about bones’ storage of inorganic salts?

A
  • account for about 70% of extracellular matrix of bone by weight
  • mostly crystals of calcium phosphate (hydroxyapatite)
  • parathyroid hormone releases calcium from bones when body is deficient
  • bone tissue also contains magnesium, sodium, potassium, and carbonate ions
62
Q

List and describe the types and classifications of bone fractures.

A
  • greenstick: incomplete; break occurs on convex surface of bend in bone
  • fissured: involves incomplete longitudinal break
  • comminuted: complete and fragments bone
  • transverse: complete, at right angle to axis of bone
  • oblique: at an angle other than a right angle to axis of bone
  • spiral: caused by twisting a bone excessively
  • compound (open): broken bone exposed to the outside by an opening in the skin
  • closed: break protected by uninjured skin
  • traumatic: break due to injury
  • spontaneous or pathologic: break resulting from disease
63
Q

Describe the body’s reaction to a broken bone and the healing process.

A

Healing process:

  1. Blood escapes from broken blood vessels and forms a hematoma. Vessels in surrounding tissues dilate, swelling and inflaming tissues.
  2. Spongy bone forms close to developing blood vessels, and fibrocartilage forms in more distant regions (cartilaginous callus). Phagocytic cells begin to remove blood clot and dead or damaged cells.
  3. A bony callus replaces fibrocartilage.
  4. Osteoclasts remove excess bony tissue, restoring new bone structure much like the original.
64
Q

How many bones do humans have on average?

A

206

65
Q

axial skeleton

A

bony and cartilaginous parts that support and protect the head, neck, and trunk

66
Q

What makes up the skull?

A

composed of the cranium (brain case):

  • frontal
  • temporal (2)
  • parietal (2)
  • occipital
  • sphenoid
  • ethmoid

and facial bones:

  • maxillae (2)
  • palatine (2)
  • zygomatic (2)
  • lacrimal (2)
  • nasal (2)
  • vomer
  • inferior nasal conchae (2)
  • mandible
67
Q

What are fontanels, how many are there, and at what ages do they close?

A
  • also called soft spots
  • six membranous areas of incomplete intramembranous ossification present in the skull at birth
  • they close in this order: posterior (2 mos), sphenoidal (3 mos), mastoid (1 yr), anterior (2 yrs)
68
Q

Where is the vertebral column and what is it made of? What does it do?

A
  • extends from the skull to the pelvis and forms the vertical axis of the skeleton
  • composed of many bony parts called vertebrae separated by masses of fibrocartilage called intervertebral discs and connected by ligaments
  • supports head and body but is flexible enough for bending forward, backward or side to side and turning or rotating on the central axis; also protects the spinal cord
69
Q

How are vertebrae divided?

A
  • cervical (7):
    • atlas (C1): supports the head by articulation with occipital condyles and has nearly no body or spine
    • axis (C2): has dens (odontoid process) that projects into atlas, which pivots around it
    • vertebra prominens (C7): spinous process is longer and can be felt through the skin
  • thoracic (12): articulate with ribs; increasing in size inferiorly
  • lumbar (5): larger and with shorter spinous processes
  • sacrum (5 fused vertebrae)
  • coccyx (4 fused vertebrae)
70
Q

spondylolisthesis

A

condition in which vertebra slips out of place over the vertebra below, most commonly L5 and sacrum

71
Q

Name the bones of the thoracic cage.

A
  • ribs (24)
    • true ribs (vertebrosternal): first seven pairs; join sternum directly by costal cartilages
    • false ribs: next five pairs’ cartilages do not reach sternum directly; upper three (vertebrochondral ribs) join the cartilages of the seventh rib; the lower two pairs do not join the sternum
  • sternum
    • manubrium
    • body
    • xiphoid process
72
Q

Name the bones of the pectoral (shoulder) girdle.

A
  • clavicle (2)
  • scapula (2)
73
Q

Name the bones of the upper limb.

A
  • humerus (2)
  • radius (2)
  • ulna (2)
  • carpal (16)
    • scaphoid
    • capitate
    • trapezoid
    • trapezium
    • lunate
    • hamate
    • triquetrum
    • pisiform
  • metacarpal (10)
  • phalanx (28)
74
Q

carpus

A

compact mass formed by carpal bones

75
Q

metacarpus

A

framework of the palm created by the five metatarsals

76
Q

polydactyly

A
  • “many digits”
  • a condition in which a child is born with one or more extra fingers
77
Q

Name the bones of the pelvic girdle.

A
  • hip bone (2)
  • pelvic bones (2)

along with the sacrum, these form the pelvis

78
Q

Name the bones of the lower limb.

A
  • femur (2)
  • tibia (2)
  • fibula (2)
  • patella (2)
  • tarsal (14)
  • metatarsal (10)
    • calcaneous
    • talus
    • navicular
    • cuboid
    • lateral cuneiform
    • intermediate cuneiform
    • medial cuneiform
  • phalanx (28)
79
Q

tarsus

A

ankle

80
Q

metatarsus

A

part of the foot made up of metatarsals

81
Q

What are the effects of aging on bones?

A
  • height begins to decrease at age 30 (about 1/16 inch per year)
  • bone mass begins to decline at 35
  • compact bone loss begins around 40
  • women have about half the bone mass in very old age as they did in their 20s
  • bone loss steady in men, but markedly faster in women with hormone changes
  • vertebral compression fractures contribute to loss of height
  • femur most commonly broken in elderly; other common breaks are wrist, hip, leg, and pelvis
  • bones become brittle, with less calcium and bone material
  • osteoclasts begin to outnumber osteoblasts, leaving more spaces in bone during remodeling
  • ratio of mineral to protein increases, making them brittle

2019 Hole's Human A&P (12 decks)

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