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PSYC 213 > Chapter 7: Memory ll > Flashcards

Chapter 7: Memory ll Flashcards

1
Q

what memories are classified as long-term memory?

A

anything that is remembered from beyond 15 seconds to an infinitely

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2
Q

how much storage does LTM have?

A

it’s infinite

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3
Q

STM vs. LTM

A
  • Short-term memory can no longer be accessed after its duration has passed
  • STM retains physical details while LTM retains abstract semantic information
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4
Q

amnesia

A

severely impaired long-term memory capacities due to trauma or brain damage

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5
Q

retrograde amnesia

A

events taking place leading up to the incident are often forgotten

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6
Q

anterograde amnesia

A

memories formed after the trauma or brain damage are lost

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7
Q

Patient HM

A

suffered from anterograde amnesia following the removal of his hippocampus, demonstrating that the hippocampus is critical in the formation of new long-term memories. He had regular STM demonstrating the different brain mechanisms underlying STM & LTM

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8
Q

Clive Wearing

A

a concert pianist also suffered from anterograde amnesia following rare herpes that led to encephalitis and damage to the hippocampus

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9
Q

double dissociation

A

the gold standard of neuropsychological evidence for different mechanisms, where each function can be shown to be preserved while the other is compromised

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10
Q

patient KF

A

had a limited STM capacity following an accident, but a normal LTM. Researchers found that he had overlapped damage in the left hemisphere near regions of the parietal lobe that contribute to verbal processes

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11
Q

STM in Alzheimer’s patients

A

suffer from STM difficulties in the early stages of the disease and show less connectivity between the prefrontal lobe and the hippocampal regions than control patients

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12
Q

how does information enter LTM according to the modal model?

A

STM gradually transfers to LTM

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13
Q

what type of information is likely to enter LTM?

A

information that is retained in STM via rehearsal

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14
Q

maintenance rehearsal

A

repeating information over and over without any additional thought

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15
Q

elaborative rehearsal

A

repeating information over and over while elaborating on its meaning

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16
Q

what type of rehearsal leads to greater LTM encoding

A

elaborate rehearsal

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17
Q

serial position effect

A

States that if people are given a long sequence of words to remember and repeat, their performance often resembles a U-shaped curve (better at repeating information given at the beginning and the end)

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18
Q

primacy effect

A

better performance for words presented earlier

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19
Q

why does the primacy effect occur?

A

because words at the beginning of the sequence have a chance to be rehearsed because there is sufficient time, allowing them to be stored in LTM

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20
Q

recency effect

A

better performance for words presented later

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21
Q

why does the recency effect occur?

A

because words are still in STM

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22
Q

study-recall delay and the recency effect

A

the recency effect disappears when participants have to wait 30 seconds before recalling the words

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23
Q

who proposed the levels of processing theory?

A

Craik & Tulving

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24
Q

levels of processing theory

A

States that the depth of meaning during processing determines how likely an item is to be recalled

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25
Q

free-recall task

A

a type of memory task where participants must remember as many items as they can from a list without cues or prompts

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26
Q

Craik & Tulving, 1972 experiment

A

found that memory performance was greater for items considered in connection to other things (sentences as opposed to case or rhyme). Also found that when the answer to the question they asked was “yes”, people remembered the words better because they processed the meaning more deeply when they matched the question. Concluded that there are 3 levels of processing

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27
Q

what are the three levels of processing according to Craik & Tulving?

A
  • Superficial processes (case, font, rereading)
  • Creating associations (rhymes, pleasantness)
  • Fitting into networks (How will I use this?)
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28
Q

Mnemonic devices

A

short-cut that can help improve your memory by allowing for deeper processing

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29
Q

who proposed transfer-appropriate processing

A

morris, 1977

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30
Q

transfer appropriate processing

A

Argues that how well information is remembered depends not only on how it was initially encoded but also on how well some later memory cue matches the way it was encoded

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31
Q

Morris, 1977 transfer-processing experiment

A

presented participants with words using the rhyme and sentence conditions employed by Craik & Tulving and tested their ability to remember the words in a free-recall & cued-recall task. Found that participants performed better in the cued-recall task when they had encoded words based on rhyming

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32
Q

Tulving & Pearlstone, 1966 transfer-processing experiment

A

had subjects learn lists of words that were members of different categories. Found that when they had no cues, they only remembered 40% of words, but when they had cues, they remembered 75%

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33
Q

encoding specificity

A

A principle in long-term memory retrieval in which a match in condition between encoding and retrieval facilitates recall

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34
Q

deep sea divers experiment

A

people remembered more words if they were underwater at encoding and retrieval or on land at encoding and retrieval

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35
Q

context-dependent memory

A

a memory benefit when the external conditions match between encoding and retrieval

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36
Q

state-dependent memory

A

a memory benefit when the internal conditions match between encoding and retrieval

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37
Q

the spacing effect

A

a benefit in LTM that occurs when information is repeated in spaced-out intervals

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38
Q

how far apart should information be spaced to take advantage of the spacing effect?

A

it’s best to space out information around 10-20% of the interval at which it will later need to be retrieved

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39
Q

testing effect

A

a benefit in LTM that occurs when people retrieve information on their own rather than observing it passively

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40
Q

explicit/declarative memory

A

memory that includes all of the information that can be verbally reported

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41
Q

episodic memory

A

a memory of events that have happened directly to us in our lives. Retrieve encoding context (what, where, when)

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42
Q

mental time travel

A

recalling episodic memory in sequence with sensory imagery

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43
Q

semantic memory

A

information is recalled as a set of facts without
retrieval of the context of learning

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44
Q

transformation of memories

A

Many memories begin as episodic and transform into semantic over time

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45
Q

patient KC

A

suffered damage to his hippocampus and surrounding areas. Following his accident, KC had no episodic memory but some of his semantic memory remained intact

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46
Q

Levine et al., 2004 fMRI & explicit memories experiment

A

recorded brain activity using fMRI as participants listened to themselves recite semantic and episodic memories. Found that when people heard semantic memory, the frontal and parietal lobes were activated, but when they heard episodic memories, the occipital and temporal lobes were activated.

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47
Q

what brain areas are activated by semantic memory?

A

frontal & parietal lobes

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48
Q

what brain areas are activated by episodic memory?

A

occipital & temporal lobes

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49
Q

implicit memory

A

A form of LTM that an individual doesn’t have explicit awareness of, but that affects their behaviour

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50
Q

procedural memory

A

a form of implicit memory consisting of knowledge of how to perform a task

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51
Q

prejudice

A

a type of implicit memory that refers to an inclination to automatically judge someone negatively or positively based on past experiences

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52
Q

IAT

A

detects underlying biases that people have towards certain groups by having participants make decisions as quickly as they can about whether certain words belong to a given category. Quicker reaction times indicate that concepts are more linked in the mind

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53
Q

familiarity effect

A

people will often rate something more favourably if they have encountered it before

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54
Q

Perfect & Askew, 1994 familiarity effect experiment

A

participants rated magazine ads more positively when they have previously seen them even when they didn’t remember having seen them

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55
Q

propaganda effect

A

a phenomenon in which people tend to rate statements they have heard before as being more likely to be true than statements they hadn’t heard before

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56
Q

what type of memory is conditioning?

A

implicit memory

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57
Q

amygdala

A

a pair of almond-shaped nuclei located in the two temporal lobes

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58
Q

what is the amygdala’s role in memory

A

involved in implicit fear conditioning

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59
Q

patient SM

A

experienced an absence of fear following bilateral amygdala damage

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60
Q

durability of implicit vs. explicit memory

A

Implicit memory tends to be less susceptible to forgetting than explicit memory

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61
Q

procedural memory & amnesia patients

A

People with amnesia like HM can be trained to learn new procedural tasks and their performance improves even if they don’t remember ever doing the task

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62
Q

what’s the basis of learning

A

stable changes taking place throughout various brain structures

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63
Q

consolidation

A

the process of making memories durable

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64
Q

two types of consolidation

A

systems & synaptic consolidation

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65
Q

synaptic consolidation

A

changes at the synapses of neurons that lead to long-term storage of memories

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66
Q

long-term potentiation

A

a form of synaptic consolidation in which a neuron becomes more likely to fire based on the same number of incoming neurotransmitters

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67
Q

why does long-term potentiation occur?

A

1) the sending neuron releases more neurotransmitters OR 2) the receiving neuron develops more receptor sites for the neurotransmitter to bind with

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68
Q

systems consolidation

A

a process of making long-term memories more durable based on connections between the cortical areas.

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69
Q

what brain structure is responsible for systems consolidation?

A

the hippocampus

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70
Q

hippocampal relay

A

a phenomenon in which sequences of brain activity in the hippocampus that occurred during behavioural activity are repeated or replayed in a sequence after the event

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71
Q

what is thought to be the the mechanism behind systems consolidation

A

hippocampal relay

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72
Q

what type of consolidation is quicker?

A

Systems consolidation is a much slower process than synaptic consolidation

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73
Q

when does the formation of fear responses occur?

A

We can form fear responses in response to previous experiences even if we have forgotten the original experience

74
Q

Naming mnemonic example

A

ROY G. BIV for the colours of the rainbow

75
Q

story mnemonic

A

create a story out of a list of words

76
Q

method of Loci

A

associated pieces of information with a location or a visual image

77
Q

methods of loci in non-experts

A

those in the mnemonic training condition performed better across all recall lengths

78
Q

implications of memory for studying

A
  • Review your work regularly at shorter sessions (spacing effect)
  • Focus on important material at the beginning and end of sessions (primary and recency effects)
  • Link what you are learning to what you know (depth of processing)
79
Q

self-reference effect

A

relating words to oneself creates better memory

80
Q

generation effect

A

generating words leads to better memory

81
Q

context for encoding specificity can be…

A
  • Internal state (ex. mood)
  • External environment (ex. room)
82
Q

Alcohol-dependent learning

A

people remembered things better if they were sober at encoding and retrieval or drunk at encoding and retrieval

83
Q

memory in children with hippocampal damage

A

Episodic memory impairment: cannot copy images after a delay
Semantic memory preservation: normal factual knowledge

84
Q

what brain structure controls episodic memory?

A

the hippocampus

85
Q

semantic dementia

A
  • Relatively spared at episodic memory tasks
  • Impaired at word naming and picture matching tasks
86
Q

anoetic consciousness

A

no awareness or personal engagement (implicit memory)

87
Q

noetic consciousness

A

awareness, but no personal engagement (semantic memory)

88
Q

autonoetic consciousness

A

awareness and personal engagement (episodic memory)

89
Q

3 types of consciousness

A

anoetic, noetic, autonomic

90
Q

personal semantics

A

Autobiographical facts and repeated events

91
Q

evidence for episodic & semantic memory as a continuum

A
  • Recent MRI studies have shown lots of overlap when people engage in semantic & episodic memory tasks
  • Semantic knowledge can affect the ability to retrieve detailed instances
92
Q

the reappearance hypothesis

A

An episodic memory trace is recalled the same way at each retrieval
It is reproduced not reconstructed

93
Q

flashbulb memories

A

Vivid memories of significant events that are
- Emotionally arousing or shocking
- Retrieve specific details about the time and place when hearing about the event

94
Q

flashbulb memories of 9/11 study

A

For flashbulb memories of 9/11, ratings of belief and recollection (vividness) increased over time. However, there was no detailed difference between flashbulb memories and everyday memories.

95
Q

flashbulb memories of O.J. Simpson trial study

A

Participants who recalled the verdict for the O.J. Simpson murder trials experienced more distortions and changed recollections over time

96
Q

flashbulb memories and new yorkers 9/11 study

A

Half of New Yorkers had flashbulb-like memories of 9/11. People who were physically closer to the World Trade Centre were more likely to remember this event as a flashbulb memory. This demonstrates that personal experiences shape flashbulb memories.

97
Q

are flashbulb memories subject to change?

A

yes, flashbulb memory retrieval changes over time and is not resistant to memory distortion, even though memory feels strong for these events

98
Q

how are episodic memory traces constructed?

A

During retrieval, the hippocampus binds together whatever details are accessed to form a representation of an episodic memory

99
Q

memory consolidation mechanism

A
  • The formation of stable cortical representations of memories
  • Experiences are encoded and then consolidated into an LTM trace
100
Q

memory reconsolidation mechanism

A
  • When a trace representation becomes activated, it becomes unstable
  • Cortical connections can be strengthened and modified during this time, which alters how the memory trace is reconsolidated
  • Retrieval changes a memory trace
101
Q

application of memory consolidation

A

Can be applied to fear and anxiety disorders by changing thought patterns during reconsolidation

102
Q

distortion of memory

A
  • We may infer the way things must have been in a recalled memory based on our schemas (interplay with semantic memory)
  • We may include new and false information in the underlying memory trace
103
Q

schemas

A

higher level representations that organize and categorize information, provide expectations about how things should occur

104
Q

Barlett, 1932 “War of Ghosts” experiment

A

had participants read an unfamiliar Native American folk story, which did not match Western folk story schemas. Found that participants remembered a simplified version of the story and it became more conventional with repeated retrievals. They engaged in assimilation and alterations to match Western schemas

105
Q

Miller & Gazzaninga scene consistency experiment

A

removed schema-consistent items from study scenes and had participants do an auditory word recognition test for items from the scene. Found that participants remembered study items better, but falsely endorsed seeing schema-congruent lures.

106
Q

Deese, Roediger, McDermott (DRM)

A

Participants tend to falsely remember semantically related lure words more than unrelated words. Illustrates the influence of semantic memory on episodic memory.

107
Q

false memories takeaways

A
  • A familiar feeling can lead to incorrect associations
  • Details can be added to memories during retrieval
108
Q

the misattribution effect

A
  • Retrieving familiar information from the wrong source
  • A failure in source monitoring (not remembering the where or when)
109
Q

leading questions and memory formation

A

Leading questions can cause false memory formation

110
Q

car crash study

A

Participants viewed a simulated car crash and depending on how the question was asked, they estimated different speeds of the cars

111
Q

implanting childhood memories study

A

participants recalled childhood experiences that were recounted by their parents over three experimental sessions. A false memory was added to the list of experiences by the experimenter and by the third session, 20% of people had a false memory of this event

112
Q

memories of the past vs. future

A

The same processes that help us construct the past help us imagine the future and plan for lives

113
Q

fMRI and planning the future study

A

looked at brain activity when people are thinking about a past event or imaging a future event. Found that there was significant overlap in the hippocampus during these two tasks.

114
Q

benefits of reconstructive memory

A
  • The mental stimulation of novel events
  • Useful to solve problems, plan for the future, and be creative
115
Q

benefit of prior knowledge

A
  • memory integration
116
Q

memory integration

A

related memories become interconnected via the medial PFC and hippocampal processes to form generalized knowledge

117
Q

role of medial PFC in memory

A

prior knowledge

118
Q

role of the hippocampus in memory

A

encoding episodic memories

119
Q

how do we encode overlapping events?

A

we encode a combined event, allowing us to make inferences about things we’ve never seen before

120
Q

types of implicit memory

A
  • procedural memory
  • priming
  • conditioning
  • emotional responses
121
Q

role of the basal ganglia in procedural memory

A

motor sequence

122
Q

role of the PFC in procedural memory

A

organization

123
Q

what differentiates procedural memory from other types of memory

A
  • More immune to forgetting compared to other types of memory
  • Longer evolutionary history than other forms of memory
124
Q

what type of memory are involved in habits?

A

Initially rely on explicit memory, but with training or exposure, they rely on implicit memory

125
Q

examples of habits

A
  • Motor action sequences
  • Repetitive thoughts and emotions (OCD)
  • Basis of some addictions
126
Q

what part of the brain is required for habit formation?

A

the striatum

127
Q

what part of the brain monitors habits?

A

the PFC

128
Q

what part of the brain is required for breaking habits?

A

requires inhibiting the PFC

129
Q

how to change habits?

A

we have to replace the habit behaviour with something else, not just simply remove the reward

130
Q

priming

A

Prior exposure facilitates information processing without awareness

131
Q

word-fragment completion test

A
  • First, participants were shown a list of words
  • Then, they are asked to complete word fragments with the first word that comes to mind
  • Result: people are likely to use prior words to complete the fragments
132
Q

implicit emotional responses

A

An automatic, conditioned arousal response

133
Q

what part of the brain is critical for implicit emotional memory?

A

the amygdala

134
Q

why are emotional memories adaptive?

A

they help us stay away from dangerous stimuli

135
Q

people without amygdala responses

A

experience dampened emotional and fear reponses

136
Q

how do semantic memories store concepts?

A

Semantic concepts are stored in a network that goes from general to specific

137
Q

units

A

individual concepts

138
Q

properties

A

things that describe concepts

139
Q

pointers/links

A

specify the relation between a concept and its features and the relationship of concepts to one another

140
Q

spreading activation

A

Automatic activation spreads from an activated concept to other interconnected aspects (process)

141
Q

semantic priming

A

related ideas triggered at retrieval (behaviour)

142
Q

how are semantic representations structured?

A

Modality-specific representational forms of concepts

143
Q

How are semantic memories stored in convergence zones?

A

abstracted representations

144
Q

who had anterograde amnesia?

A

Clive Wearing & HM

145
Q

what memories are most affected by retrograde amnesia?

A

according to Ribot’s law, they are temporally graded; the most recent memories are more affected than more remote memories because they don’t rely as much on the hippocampus

146
Q

dissociative amnesia

A

a rare psychiatric disorder that commonly involves retrograde amnesia for episodic memories and autobiographical knowledge

147
Q

effects of dissociative amnesia on lifestyle

A

Results in a loss of identity, which leads to shifts in lifestyle such as moving to a new place and assuming a new identity

148
Q

what causes dissociative amnesia?

A

Usually a response from psychological or physical trauma (NOT brain injury)

149
Q

brain irregularities in dissociative amnesia patients

A

Hypometabolism (reduced activity) in the lateral PFC, resulting in impaired executive processes

150
Q

what type of deficit is dissociative amnesia?

A

retrieval

151
Q

dementia

A

progressive cognitive and functional impairments due to neuronal death

152
Q

frequency of Alzheimer’s disease

A

63% of all dementia cases are Alzheimer’s disease

153
Q

what is the first symptom of Alzheimer’s disease?

A

a deficit in episodic memory

154
Q

what brain area is the first to be affected by AD pathology?

A

Medial temporal lobe (MTL)

155
Q

mild cognitive impairment due to AD

A
  • spreads to lateral temporal and parietal lobes
  • symptoms include reading problems, poor object recognition, and poor direction sense
156
Q

moderate cognitive impairment due to AD

A
  • spreads to the frontal lobe
  • symptoms include poor judgment, impulsivity, and short attention
157
Q

severe cognitive impairment due to AD

A
  • widespread brain atrophy
  • symptoms include loss of language, basic motor skills, and function problems
158
Q

music and AD patients

A
  • AD patients can learn and play songs
  • Recognition of familiar songs remains intact
  • Music creates an alternative procedural memory pathway
  • It improves mood, reduces stress, and improves cognition
159
Q

where does neurodegeneration begin in semantic dementia

A

left anterior temporal lobe

160
Q

left anterior temporal lobe

A

convergence zone for semantic concept representations

161
Q

semantic dementia

A
  • Deficits recognizing faces of friends, words, and uses of objects
  • A loss of word meaning and finding (anomia)
  • Impairments naming the function of objects
  • Problems accessing fine-grained information about concepts
162
Q

rate of volume loss in healthy aging

A

~5% per decade after age 40

163
Q

what parts of memory are most impacted by aging?

A
  • Episodic memory and working memory are impaired
  • The hippocampus and PFC are most affected
164
Q

domain-general cognitive aging theories

A

Older adults have deficits in general executive cognitive processes from frontal lobe atrophy

165
Q

associative deficit hypothesis

A

Older adults have problems encoding and retrieving associations in memory due to hippocampal activity

166
Q

familarity of single objects

A

recognizing a face (non-hippocampal)

167
Q

recollection

A

remembering a face and place (hippocampal)

168
Q

name-face assocaitive recognition task in older vs. younger adults

A

Young people using divided attention performed better than older adults at a name-face associative recognition task

169
Q

adaptive cognitive aging study

A
  • Had young adults, high memory performing old adults, and low-memory-performing old adults undergo a memory test in a scanner
  • Results showed that young adults and old low-memory performing adults recruited the right PFC but old high-memory performing adults used the bilateral PFC, providing evidence of neural compensation
170
Q

flashbulb memories vs. regular memories

A

No real difference in their content, but rather in the way they are experienced

171
Q

the memory of London taxi drivers vs. bus drivers

A

Taxi drivers performed better on tests of spatial memory than bus drivers

172
Q

brains of London taxi drivers vs. bus drivers

A

Taxi drivers have greater posterior hippocampi but smaller anterior hippocampi than bus drives

173
Q

Posterior hippocampus volume in taxi drivers

A

is related to the year of experience as a taxi driver

174
Q

Posterior hippocampus

A

important for spatial navigation

175
Q

Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory (HSAM)

A
  • HSAM people can remember every single day of their lives in detail
  • HSAM doesn’t involve mnemonic strategies
  • They don’t remember a list of words any better than the average person
  • They don’t have a photographic memory
176
Q

2 ways of testing HSAM abilities

A

dates quiz & public events quiz

177
Q

dates quiz

A

describe a certain date (day of the week, what they did, etc.)

178
Q

public events quiz

A

describe when a particular public event happened

179
Q

downsides of superior memory

A
  • Consistency in recalling memories (not forgetting details of the past) relates to OCD symptoms
  • Problems with accessing general concept knowledge
180
Q

Luria HSAM case study

A

HSAM Patient:
- Recalled conversations word for word
- Recalled detailed events from years ago
- Could reproduce 70 digits without error

PSYC 213 (14 decks)

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