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PSYC 213 > Chapter 4: Perception > Flashcards

Chapter 4: Perception Flashcards

1
Q

sensation

A

registering stimuli energy and transmitting it to the brain

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2
Q

perception

A

processing sensory information into something that can meaningfully guide behaviour

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3
Q

where does perception take place

A

in the brain

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4
Q

Proprioception

A

the sense of where in space our limbs are

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5
Q

Nociception

A

the sense of pain due to bodily damage

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6
Q

Equilibrioception

A

the sense of balance

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7
Q

lightness

A

our perception of how light or dark something is

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8
Q

what surfaces tend to be lighter

A

More light reflecting into the eye tends to be a lighter surface

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9
Q

our perceptual brain is most concerned with what properties

A

the properties of an object that remain stable overtime

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10
Q

does our perceptual image change

A

Our eyes are constantly moving and thus our perceived image is constantly changing

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11
Q

perception often depends on ____

A

guesses

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12
Q

bi-stable stimuli

A

stimuli where the brain changes its mind upon looking at them

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13
Q

eye

A

an organ whose purpose is to gather light, focus it, and turn it into a neural signal

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14
Q

cornea

A

a transparent, rubbery layer of tissue at the front of the eye that bends light to help it land on the correct part of the back of the eye

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15
Q

iris

A

a circular ring of coloured muscle that light passes through after the cornea

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16
Q

pupil

A

the small opening in the iris that light passes through

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17
Q

path of light in the eye

A

Light -> cornea -> pupil -> lens -> back of the eye

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18
Q

focus

A

light from specific locations hits specific parts of the retina

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19
Q

perspective projection

A

objects that are farther away produce a smaller image than those that are close by. occurs because light must pass through a small point

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20
Q

how is the image projected on the retina oriented

A

upside down because light from above falls on the bottom of the retina while light from below falls on the top of the retina

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21
Q

retina

A

consists of multiple layers of neurons with the last layer containing photoreceptors

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22
Q

photoreceptors

A

light-sensitive neurons

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23
Q

two types of photoreceptors

A

rods & cones

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24
Q

rods

A
  • sensitive photoreceptors that require less light to be stimulated
  • Better for seeing in the dark
  • Reduced resolution
  • Respond equally to different wavelengths of light
  • Located in the periphery of the retina
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25
Q

cones

A
  • less sensitive photoreceptors that require more light to be stimulated
  • Better for seeing in well-lit conditions
  • High resolution
  • Come in 3 different varieties that respond differently to different wavelengths of light
  • Located in the fovea (centre of the retina)
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26
Q

optic nerve

A

a bundle of axons that pass from the retina to the brain

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27
Q

lateral geniculate nucleus

A

part of the thalamus that receives 90% of visual information from the retina

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28
Q

thalamus

A

part of the brain that serves as a waystation between sensory inputs and the cortex

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29
Q

primary visual cortex (V1)

A

the first part of the visual cortex where neurons respond to fairly simple patterns consisting mostly of oriented edges

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30
Q

middle cortex (V2)

A

the second part of the visual cortex where neurons respond to complex shapes

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31
Q

late cortex (V3)

A

the third part of the visual cortex where neurons respond to specific objects

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32
Q

visual agnosia

A

cases in which a person has difficulty recognizing or perceiving one kind of visual stimulus, while maintaining the ability to process other kinds of stimuli

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33
Q

prosopagnosia

A

a marked difficulty in recognizing individual faces

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34
Q

semantic agnosia

A

a marked difficulty in recognizing everyday objects such as tools

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35
Q

fusiform face area (FFA)

A

a particular region of the temporal cortex that shows greater activity when people engage in a facial recognition task

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36
Q

lateral occipital cortex (LOC)

A

a particular region of the occipital lobe that is selectively activated when people to an object recognition task

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37
Q

Greebles study

A

challenged that the FFA is specialized to process faces and concluded that it is rather responsible for visual expertise

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38
Q

dorsal stream

A

(where stream) takes information from the occipital to parietal lobes. Responsible for perceiving location, space, movement information

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39
Q

ventral stream

A

(what stream) takes information from the occipital to temporal lobes. Responsible for perceiving shape, size, visual details

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40
Q

alternative explanation for ventral and dorsal streams

A

What/ ventral corresponds to perception
Where/ dorsal corresponds to action

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41
Q

image segmentation

A

the retinal image is a continuous array of measurements but the brain wants to know how to divide it up into different objects and regions

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42
Q

depth perception

A

the retinal image is in 2D but the brain wants to know where the objects are in 3D

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43
Q

object recognition

A

the brain wants to identify what the objects are

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44
Q

bottom-up processing

A

the processing of the stimulus that does not require any specific knowledge of it

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45
Q

top-down processing

A

where specific knowledge about a particular stimulus contributes to how it is perceived

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46
Q

what is most important for image segmentation

A

Points in the image where there is a sudden change from dark to light or vice versa

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47
Q

figure-group assignment

A

Determines which regions of an image contain the objects and which contain the continuous background that the objects are in front of

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48
Q

3 cues the brain uses when deciding which region to assign a border to

A

convexity, symmetry, smaller region

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49
Q

law of similarity

A

the tendency to group together features of the same image that have similar properties in some dimension

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50
Q

law of proximity

A

the tendency to group features of the image that are close together

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51
Q

law of good continuation/ contour

A

the tendency to group together features that form a smooth, continuous path

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52
Q

what type of processing is depth perception

A

bottom-up

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53
Q

cues to depth perception

A

occlusion (blocking), motion parallax, binocular disparity

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54
Q

motion parallax

A

objects farther away from you will change their position more slowly on your retina as you move

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55
Q

binocular disparity

A

the difference in position on the retina of each eye

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56
Q

recognition

A

Determining what objects are by matching some incoming stimulus to a stored representation in memory

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57
Q

template model of recognition

A

matching an object to an image stored in memory point by point

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58
Q

template model of recognition in the real world

A

fails because everytime you view an object, it produces a different image

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59
Q

identification

A

the ability to identify the same object across variations

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60
Q

classification

A

recognizing something as a member of a category even if you haven’t encountered that specific example before

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61
Q

scene schema

A

people learn which objects tend to appear in particular contexts

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62
Q

exteroception

A

the sensing and processing of information from the external environment by the 5 basic senses

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63
Q

interoception

A

the sensing and processing of information inside the body

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64
Q

phonemic restoration effect

A

a perceptual phenomenon in which missing sounds are filled in by the brain based on our knowledge of language

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65
Q

purpose of the auditory nervous system

A

to transmit properties of sound waves and transduce them into neural signals

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66
Q

pinna

A

the visible portion of the ear made up of folded cartilage. Its purpose is to capture the sound in the air and transmit it to the ear canal

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67
Q

ear canal

A

a narrow tube that amplifies certain frequencies and transmits the sound to the eardrum

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68
Q

eardrum

A

a thin piece of tissue separating the ear canal from the inner ear. It amplifies certain frequencies and passes them to the ossicles

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69
Q

ossicles

A

a series of tiny bones that ensures the appropriate frequencies and amplitudes are relayed to the cochlea

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70
Q

cochlea

A

a coiled, bony structure in the inner ear that is filled with fluid

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71
Q

basilar membrane

A

a strip of tissue in the cochlea that contains hair cells

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72
Q

hair cells

A

mechanoreceptors that are moved by vibrations in the fluid in the cochlea. they transduce the mechanical signal into an electrical signal in response to the basilar membrane vibrating

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73
Q

tonotropic map

A

a spatial arrangement of neural structures in which locations are organized based on the frequency of the sound they encode. High frequencies make the wider part vibrate and lower frequencies make the narrower part vibrate (like a xylophone)

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74
Q

As you go further along the coil, the frequency hair cells respond to gets ____

A

lower

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75
Q

where does tonotropic organization stop

A

once it reaches the auditory cortex

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76
Q

primary auditory cortex (A1)

A

a region in the temporal lobe that is the first to receive auditory information from the cortex

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77
Q

what are the main streams of hearing?

A

Divided into the dorsal & ventral streams, where the dorsal is involved in sound localization and the ventral in sound identification

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78
Q

sound waves

A

oscillating movement in the air caused by vibrations of objects in the air

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79
Q

frequency (wavelengths)

A

the distance between the crests of sequential waves

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80
Q

amplitude

A

the height from the trough of the wave to its crest

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81
Q

amplitude is an indication of

A

loudness (high amplitude= loud)

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82
Q

olfaction

A

the sense of smell, which is concerned with measuring chemicals that have travelled through the air

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83
Q

gustation

A

the sense of taste, which is concerned with measuring the presence of certain chemicals that have been ingested into the mouth

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84
Q

what senses are most involved in cognition?

A

sight & hearing

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85
Q

what senses evolved first

A

chemical senses (gustation & olfaction)

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86
Q

taste buds

A

structures on the surface of the tongue that contain the sensory receptors for taste

87
Q

what are the basic taste receptors & how do they work

A

5 basic taste receptors: sweetness, sourness, saltiness, bitterness, and savouriness (umami). Chemicals in the mouth bind to the taste receptors, leading to changes in electrical potential and neurotransmitter release. These sensory neurons send their signal through the brainstem

88
Q

primary gustatory cortex

A

the first region of the cortex to receive information from the gustatory sensory system

89
Q

olfactory epithelium

A

a strip of tissue in the nasal cavity that contains the chemical sensory receptors that support smell

90
Q

does smell or taste have more sensory receptors?

A

smell

91
Q

olfactory bulb

A

a specialized structure at the bottom of the forebrain that receives information from the olfactory epithelium

92
Q

where does information go after the olfactory bulb?

A

Projects to several other brain structures including the amygdala and hippocampus

93
Q

somatosensory cortex

A

a region of the brain located in the temporal lobe that receives multiple sources of sensory information from across the body, including the sense of touch

94
Q

cortical homunculus

A

a spatially organized map of the human body contained within the somatosensory cortex that processes touch information

95
Q

how is the cortical homunculus organized?

A

The representation is enlarged for parts of the body that are dense with sensory receptors

96
Q

constructive perception

A

a model of perception in which sensory information is used to generate a mental model of the environment that is assumed to have caused the sensory stimulus

97
Q

direct perception

A

a theoretical approach to perception that holds that the sensory stimuli be used to guide behaviour in an action/perception loop

98
Q

who is direct perception associated with?

A

Associated with James J. Gibson & Johannes Muller, who proposed that individual nerves formed pathways that led directly from sensation to behaviour

99
Q

stereopsis

A

the use of binocular disparity in perceiving depth

100
Q

What type of processing is often involved in recognition?

A

top-down

101
Q

dancers and interoception study

A

Christensen et al., 2017: Dancers have increased interoceptive accuracy
They could estimate their heart rate more accurately than non-dancers, which was unrelated to fitness levels or counting ability (nuisance variables)

102
Q

Synaesthesia

A

A neurological condition, with some genetic component, in which one sense automatically triggers the experience of another sense

103
Q

grapheme-colour synesthesia

A

a person sees colours with certain letters or numbers

104
Q

main hypothesis for synaesthesia

A

that it is due to cross-wiring between processing areas in the brain

105
Q

synaesthesia in artists

A

Artists are 8x more likely to have synesthesia than non-artists because the cross-talk between sensory areas increases the ability to think creatively and in metaphors

106
Q

getting from sensation to perception

A

Stimuli are registered by a sensory receptor, which are transduced into a neural impulse. The code is then transmitted by the brain through subcortical regions to generate perception and behaviour

107
Q

McGurk effect

A

A multisensory illusion such that there is a change in auditory perception from visual perception

108
Q

takeaways from the McGurk effect

A

Demonstrates that there is an integration of sensory information & that visual input is dominant

109
Q

parts of the early visual processing system

A

eyes and the optic nerve

110
Q

parts of the late visual processing system

A

the visual cortex (occipital lobe)

111
Q

early visual processing steps

A
  1. Light waves enter the eye and are focused, inverted, and projected by the cornea and lens onto the retina
  2. Photoreceptors in the retina convert light to electrical activity
  3. The electrical signal is sent to bipolar cells and then to ganglion cells
  4. The signal exits through the optic nerve to the brain
112
Q

information compression

A

Millions of photoreceptors in each retina converge onto 100 x fewer ganglion cells -> optic nerve -> brain

113
Q

what part of the visual field is most detailed

A

the centre

114
Q

perceptual filling in

A

later visual processing systems fill in what the periphery should be perceiving based on information from the surrounding areas

115
Q

where are photoreceptors located in the retina

A

at the back

116
Q

where are ganglion cells located in the retina

A

at the front

117
Q

what is the optic nerve made up of

A

the axons of ganglion cells

118
Q

blindspot

A

the location where the optic nerve leaves the brain and there are no photoreceptors so visual stimuli are not received

119
Q

principle of contralateral representation

A

The left visual field is perceived via the right hemisphere
The right visual field is perceived via the left hemisphere

120
Q

visual association area

A

interprets visual information and assigns meaning

121
Q

ventral damage with intact dorsal stream

A

results in impaired performance on visual object recognition or matching tasks

122
Q

dorsal damage with intact ventral stream

A

results in impaired performance on visually guided action (picking up an object appropriately)

123
Q

pain perception study

A

Jepma et al., 2018: individuals had significantly pain ratings for high vs. low cue trials even though the level of shock was exactly the same, demonstrating that pain perception is partly determined by expectations

124
Q

the Ponzo illusion

A

two equal lines are placed on a railroad track and the top line looks bigger because of our previous assumptions about depth cues

125
Q

the monster illusion

A

one monster is chasing another and the one at the back appears much larger because of depth cues

126
Q

the visual illusions we are susceptible to demonstrate

A

the prior assumptions we have

127
Q

ames room

A

a functional illusion where expectations of observation guide perception. In a trapezoidal room, one person will look much taller than the other even if they’re the same size because of our assumptions about size constancy

128
Q

the letters in context effect

A

the ability to read words in sentences even when the letters are mixed up because of our assumption of context effects

129
Q

the colour in context effect

A

the context a colour appears in can influence how you see that colour because of our assumption of context effects

130
Q

colour perception depends on

A

the wavelengths of light that all on our retina & our past experiences of how objects look under different contexts of illumination

131
Q

the munker-white illusion

A

we see two columns that are the same colour as different because of their surroundings. Demonstrates the colour in context effect

132
Q

the rotating snake illusion

A

we perceive motion when there isn’t because of peripheral drift

133
Q

compensation of visual fields

A

The left and right visual fields can compensate for each other’s blindspot

134
Q

where does the optic nerve of each eye transmit information?

A

to both hemispheres in the thalamus

135
Q

necker cube

A

an example of a bi-stable stimuli that demonstrates that our perception often depends on guesses

136
Q

visual experience of blindsight patients

A

No conscious awareness (explicit perception) of visual objects in their damaged visual field. Able to implicitly respond to questions about objects presented in the damaged visual field, which suggests they can perceive something without consciousness

137
Q

what do blindsight experiements demonstrate about consciousness?

A

Perception is first processed without conscious awareness in the brain

138
Q

tests of blindsight

A

Over trials, turn a light on or off in the blinded visual field. Ask patients to guess if the light was on or off (forced-choice responding task). Patients performed above chance on the forced-choice responding task for lights in the blinded area

139
Q

critiques of blindsight experiments

A
  • There may be other pathways for visual information to bypass the PFC
  • Relies on self-report
  • Some blindsight cases report a non-visual feeling that something happened
140
Q

blindsight and visual imagery

A

Blindsight leads to deficits in consciously processing incoming visual information but not imagery

141
Q

damage to the dorsal stream can lead to what conditions

A

akinetopsia & optic ataxia

142
Q

akinetopsia

A

the inability to perceive motion; the person instead sees motion as a series of stationary objects

143
Q

optic ataxia

A

the inability to estimate movements or directions of objects in space

144
Q

damage to the ventral pathway can lead to what conditions

A

visual agnosias

145
Q

visual agnosia

A

Difficulties recognizing objects

146
Q

what is the cause of visual agnosia

A

damage to the lateral occipital cortex

147
Q

prosopagnosia

A

the fusiform face area (FFA) damage leads to selective deficit in recognizing faces, keeping intact the ability to visually recognize other objects

148
Q

Patient WJ

A

a sheep farmer with prosopagnosia who was unable to name or recognize famous faces or determine age or gender or human faces but could recognize and discriminate sheep with very high accuracy. he demonstrated that there is selective face processing in the brain

149
Q

apperceptive visual agnosia

A

A failure in recognizing objects due to problems with perceiving elements of the objects as a whole

150
Q

what kind of tasks to people with apperceptive visual agnosia struggle with?

A

tasks involving perception and discrimination of objects

151
Q

associative agnosia

A

An inability to associate visual input with meaning

152
Q

what kinds of tasks do people with associative agnosia stuggle with

A

tasks involving accessing informaiton from memory

153
Q

what kind of agnosia does a patient who can’t copy an image but can draw it from memory have?

A

apperceptive visual agnosia

154
Q

what kind of agnosia does a patient who can’t draw an image from memory but can copy it have?

A

associative agnosia

155
Q

bistable figures

A

Ambiguous sensory data with multiple valid interpretations. The brain relies on various cues to determine how to perceive the stimuli

156
Q

Gestalt approach to perception

A

state that the whole that is perceived is greater than the sum of its parts

157
Q

what type of processing does the Gestalt approach subcribe to?

A

top-down processing

158
Q

two main gestalt principles

A

principle of experience and the visual grouping principle

159
Q

principle of experience

A

we see what we are familiar with

160
Q

how does the brain decide what to perceive as a figure and what to perceive as ground?

A

We are more likely to perceive something as a figure if it’s something we’re familiar with

161
Q

principle of closed forms

A

we see a shape in terms of closed forms, and we like to see items that enclosed as a whole

162
Q

what is the main gestalt law that falls under the principle of experience?

A

figure-ground segmentation

163
Q

texture gradients

A

The density of a texture (gradient) provides information about distance

164
Q

according to texture gradients, where are close vs. far objects placed

A

Near objects are farther apart and far objects are close together

165
Q

what principle did they use when building the Magic Kingdom?

A

texture gradients; the bricks at the top of the castle are smaller to make the castle appear taller

166
Q

topological breakages

A

Discontinuity created by the interaction of two textures. Provides information about edges of objects and aids in object identification

167
Q

pattern recognition theories

A

emphasize identifying a pattern in visual input
and matching the pattern in visual input to existing patterns stored in memory.
The highest similarity between the probe and memory trace will determine recognition

168
Q

template matching theory

A

Every object has a template in long-term memory

169
Q

criticisms of template matching theory

A

-too simplistic
-computationally demanding
-can’t explain identification
-can’t explain classification

170
Q

prototype

A

the average representation of an object concept

171
Q

prototype theory

A

Recognition is determined by a ‘good enough’ match

172
Q

feature detection theory

A

Visual input is broken down into individual parts (features). Each feature is processed separately. The combination of features is used as a pattern for recognition to compare to a prototype

173
Q

geons

A

basic geometric shapes

174
Q

recognition by components theory

A

All objects are reducible to a set of geons. Recognition involves mentally separating a visual object into geons, examining the arrangement, and finding the best match of arrangement to memory representation of geon combinations

175
Q

scene in consistency effect

A

an object is named more accurately in a place you would expect it to be than one you wouldn’t

176
Q

inconsistent scenes and EEG study

A

An inconsistent scene elicited a negative potential in an N400 response in an EEG, signalling a semantic violation

177
Q

what kind of processing does direct perception involve?

A

passive bottom-up approach

178
Q

interpreting shadows

A

We use light to interpret shading and shadows, which lead us to see something as protruding or an imprint

179
Q

why is the auditory system so complex?

A

Sound waves pass through so many structures to amplify the sound so that the original frequency is maintained in the cochlea

180
Q

what is sound?

A

The rhythmic displacement of air molecules

181
Q

what are sounds made up of?

A

one or many sinusoidal waves

182
Q

function of the ear

A

amplifies, transduces, and transmits sounds into auditory perception

183
Q

3 main divisions of the ear

A

outer, middle, and inner ear

184
Q

pinna in other species

A

Looks different in different species because the pinna is adapted to catch sounds most relevant to different species. Some species can move their pinnae

185
Q

where does transduction begin to occur in the ear?

A

the eardrum

186
Q

3 types of ossicles

A

malleus, incus, stapes

187
Q

why are the ossicles critical?

A

Needed to further amplify the sound so that it makes it through the fluid of the cochlea

188
Q

affrent nerves in the auditory system

A

go from hair cells to the CNS

189
Q

effrent nerves in the auditory system

A

go from the CNS to hair cells

190
Q

where do auditory nerves project to?

A

to the primary auditory cortex mostly on the contralateral side

191
Q

where does the primary auditory cortex have connections to?

A

Broca’s & Wernicke’s area for speech and the primary motor cortex for coordinating movement with sounds

192
Q

how is frequency measured?

A

Hz

193
Q

what does frequency determine?

A

pitch (High pitch= high frequency)

194
Q

what are complex sounds made of?

A

combinations of simple sound waves

195
Q

how is amplitude measured?

A

dB

196
Q

equal loudness contous

A

pitch and frequency determine loudness perception

197
Q

phon

A

a perceptual unit of loudness that correponds to a particular decibal level

198
Q

what are the main cues for locating sounds in space?

A

interaural time difference & intraural level difference

199
Q

intraural time difference

A

when a sound is made on one side of your body, it will arrive sooner at that side

200
Q

interaural level difference

A

when a sound is made on one side of your body, it will be slightly louder on that side

201
Q

why are our ears good at detecting sound on the horizontal plane?

A

it’s where they’re placed

202
Q

auditory scene analysis

A

the transformation of sound waves into meaningful auditory units (mental representations of sounds). Is based on Gestalt principles & groups sounds in a similar way to how visual input is organized

203
Q

auditory grouping

A

sounds come from the same source

204
Q

auditory separating

A

sounds do not come from the same source

205
Q

sequential integration

A

process of connecting sounds together in time, which results in distinct auditory streams

206
Q

temporal proximity

A

how close sounds are linked in time

207
Q

fundamental frequency

A

lowest frequency component

208
Q

harmonics

A

multiples of the fundamental frequency

209
Q

how to obtain a target frequency?

A

shift the fundamental frequency & harmonics around it

210
Q

amount of information in information processing

A

the amount of information given by a message is inversely proportional to the probability that the message will occur

211
Q

what type of processing is involved with inductive reasoning?

A

bottom-up

212
Q

what type of processing is involved with deductive reasoning?

A

top-down

213
Q

is detecting cinnamon odorants a sensation or perception?

A

sensation

214
Q

where does the information in the visual system cross over to the contralateral side?

A

at the optic chiasm

PSYC 213 (14 decks)

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