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PSYC 213 > Chapter 6: Memory l > Flashcards

Chapter 6: Memory l Flashcards

1
Q

memory

A

the process of using information that was obtained in the past to generate some cognitive function in the present

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2
Q

encoding

A

the initial processing of information by the nervous system

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3
Q

storage

A

the retention of information in the nervous system beyond initial encoding

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4
Q

retrieval

A

access and use of stored information by the nervous system

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5
Q

are human and computer memory similar?

A

yes

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6
Q

2 ways to measure memory

A

capacity & duration

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7
Q

capacity

A

how much information a memory system can hold

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8
Q

duration

A

how long information remains in memory

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9
Q

William James on memory

A

there may be two kinds of memory stores: one for information related to the current task and one for longer-term storage

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10
Q

who developed the modal memory of memory

A

Atkinson & Shiffrin

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11
Q

modal model of memory

A

explains how incoming input from the environment is conceptually stored in the mind. States that there are three basic kinds of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory

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12
Q

sensory memory

A

briefly holds the information just encoded by the sensory organs

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13
Q

what moves information from sensory memory to STM

A

attention

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14
Q

short-term memory

A

serves to hold processed information for rehearsal or to produce a behaviour

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15
Q

what’s the estimated duration of STM

A

15-30 seconds

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16
Q

maintenance rehersal

A

the repetition of information in STM which prolongs its duration

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17
Q

long-term memory

A

a cold storage of information that may be retrieved back into STM as needed for a task or behaviour

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18
Q

what’s the estimated capacity of LTM

A

not agreed upon

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19
Q

how much information from STM is encoded in LTM?

A

only a small fraction

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20
Q

how long does sensory memory last

A

250 ms

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21
Q

what’s an example of persistence of vision

A

toys with LED light strips

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22
Q

Thaumatrope

A

a popular toy in the 19th century that consisted of a disk with different drawings on each side. When it was spun quickly, it would lead to the illusion of seeing both images at the same time

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23
Q

iconic memory

A

the visual form of sensory memory in which much of the visual input can be stored for a short period

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24
Q

echoic memory

A

an auditory form of sensory memory in which much of the auditory input can be stored for a short period

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25
Q

short-term memory capacity in the visual domain

A

4 items

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26
Q

short-term memory capacity in the auditory domain

A

7 items

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27
Q

Miller STM capacity experiment

A

presented participants with lists of letters, numbers, or words and asked them to repeat the items in order. Found that the average capacity to repeat items without any errors was 7, but that capacities ranged from 5-9

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28
Q

STM capacity between people vs. within people

A

Capacity ranges from person to person, but is relatively consistent across trials in a particular person

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29
Q

chunk

A

any combination of letters, numbers, or sounds that constitute a meaningful whole
Information is easier to remember when it is divided into chunks

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30
Q

Luck & Vogel STM capacity experiment

A

used a paradigm reminiscent of change blindness to visually test memory. Found that once the number of objects decreased to greater than 5, memory performance rapidly dropped off

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31
Q

Inoue & Matsuzawa STM capacity in chimps experiment

A

provided chimpanzees and humans with 5 digits that appeared on a screen from 210-650 ms. After that wait period, the subject was tasked with touching the squares to reveal the digits in numeric order. On average, humans’ memory performance for the 5 digits decreased when the presentation time dipped below 400 ms, but some chimps were able to still store 5 digits with only 200 ms

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32
Q

Mneumonists

A

people who are capable of memorizing long strings of letters or numbers

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33
Q

what causes mnemonists’ enhanced memory abilities

A

a skilled ability to form large chunks

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34
Q

chess STM capacity study

A

expert chess players recall more pieces on a chess board than new chess players because experts use knowledge of moves to chunk pieces together. This effect is not present if the pieces are on the board randomly

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35
Q

maintenance rehersal

A

the mental repetition of information in STM that allows information to be regenerated to prolong its duration

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36
Q

Brown Peterson task

A

Consists of a STM task in which participants have to memorize 3 letters, but then are presented a 2 digit number and had to begin counting backward by threes out loud, preventing rehearsal. Found that under these conditions, the memory of the letters began to fade after a few seconds and by 15-18 seconds, participants showed little or no memory of it

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37
Q

decay model

A

forgetting simply occurs because of the passage of time

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38
Q

interference model

A

new information comes into memory serves to displace older information

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39
Q

what are the two types of interference

A

proactive & retroactive inteference

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40
Q

proactive interference

A

cases in which learned information causes you to forget something that you learn in the future

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41
Q

retroactive interference

A

cases in which newer information causes you to forget something from the past

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42
Q

what model of forgetting did Brown & Peterson attribute their findings to

A

they attributed their findings to decay, but interference might also be at play

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43
Q

Keppel & Underwood trigram experiment & forgetting

A

in the first few trials, participants remembered the trigram for up to 15 seconds with relatively high accuracy, but on later trials, the decay over time began to appear, suggesting that both interference and decay are occurring

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44
Q

Lewandowsky et al., sequences & forgetting experiment

A

had participants remember sequences of letters by responding on a computer keyboard while repeating an irrelevant word out loud. Found that there was no effect of the speed at which participants had to type the letters on their recall of the items. Concluded that without interference, the passage of time alone doesn’t cause decay in STM

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45
Q

who developed the working model of memory?

A

Baddely

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46
Q

what does the working model of memory suggest

A

Describes the STM as an active workspace where information can be mentally manipulated based on the current task
Proposes that the STM is divided into three connected but distinct subunits

47
Q

3 subunits of the STM in the working model of memory

A

visual-spatial sketchpad, phonological loop, central executive

48
Q

visual-spatial sketchpad

A

the visual component of WM that both holds information and allows for the active manipulation and analysis of that information

49
Q

phonological loop

A

the auditory component of WM that allows auditory information to be repeated and rehearsed

50
Q

central executive

A

component of WM that determines what information makes it into STM and coordinates between the visual and auditory memory storages

51
Q

acoustic confusions

A

difficulties repeating stimuli that sound more similar to one another

52
Q

Brooks acoustic confusions experiment

A

participants had to do either an auditory-memory or visual-memory task and respond to the task either verbally or visually. Found that people did better on the task if they had to respond in a different modality than what they had to remember, suggesting that visual and auditory memory are processed separately and don’t interfere with one another

53
Q

main hypothesis for differences in STM capacity

A

Differences in STM capacity may be due to differences in the central executive’s ability to filter out irrelevant information

54
Q

Vogel high & low capacity STM experiment

A

gave participants a standard STM task and divided them into high or low memory capacities. Both groups then performed a specialized visual STM task while in an EEG. Found that ERP responses were similar to the two groups when only the red rectangles were present but when the blue distractor rectangles were present, low-capacity individuals showed a stronger ERP than high-capacity individuals. Demonstrates that low-capacity individuals couldn’t filter out the blue rectangles

55
Q

criticisms of the working model of memory

A
  • People can remember many more items when they form a coherent story
  • Conscious experience appears to bind many different modalities
56
Q

episodic buffer

A

a separate, time-limited memory store controlled by the central executive than can combine information from across different sources, including the phonological loop, the visual-spatial sketchpad, and LTM

57
Q

working memory & cognition

A

Working memory capacity is predictive of other measures in cognition like general intelligence (g)

58
Q

Li & Geary math abilities experiment

A

first graders’ skills for completing tasks dependent on visual working memory were predictive of their math abilities in fifth grade

59
Q

Kali reasoning experiment

A

found that assessments of memory span administered to children at an early age can predict other measures of reasoning ability later in life

60
Q

Gui musical training experiment

A

short-term musical training can lead to selective improvements in WM ability in young children

61
Q

Lumosity scandal

A

Lumosity was fined by the Federal Trade Commission for making overly broad claims of cognitive improvement due to their program

62
Q

what’s the neuronal basis for STM & working memory?

A

Consists of the initial perceptual encoding of information continuing on for as long as the information is being actively remembered

63
Q

where does working memory happen?

A

Working memory happens all over the brain in modality-specific regions

64
Q

Funahashi et al PFC neurons in monkeys experiment

A

identified a neuron in the PFC that responded when a square was presented somewhere in the visual field. They presented the square, then followed it with a delay period and found that during the delay, the neuron went into overdrive when the monkey had to remember its location.

65
Q

Delayed-match-to-sample task

A

a task designed to test visual short-term memory. Participants are shown an image, then a delay, followed by a second image and are tasked with determining whether the two images are the same

66
Q

what happens to neural activity when participants are shown an image followed by a delay, then a second image and are tasked with determining whether the images were the same?

A

increased activity in the PFC during the delay phase, suggesting an important role of the frontal cortex in working memory

67
Q

what happens when the dorsolateral PFC is impaired?

A

patients show impairments on tasks similar to the delayed matching tasks

68
Q

Clive Wearing

A

Some aspects of Clive’s memory were impaired, but other cognitive functions weren’t.

69
Q

what does Clive Wearing’s memory loss demonstrate?

A

There are various kinds of memory with distinct capacities, duration, and relation to consciousness

70
Q

memory consolidation

A

encoding -> storage

71
Q

neural basis of encoding

A

a memory trace is formed as a hippocampal-cortical activity pattern

72
Q

neural basis of storage

A

via consolidation, a memory is transformed into a stable cortical pattern

73
Q

neural basis of retrieval

A

part of a memory trace is activated by a cue that triggers pattern completion

74
Q

function of sensory memory

A

Allows us to make quick decisions based on what’s in our environment

75
Q

gustatory memory

A

sensory memory for taste

76
Q

olfactory memory

A

sensory memory for smell

77
Q

haptic memory

A

a very brief moment of touch

78
Q

persistence of vision

A

an afterimage of something you have previously perceived

79
Q

two types of afterimages

A

positive & negative

80
Q

positive afterimage

A

a visual memory that represents the perceived image

81
Q

negative afterimage

A

a visual memory is the inverse of the perceived image

82
Q

Sperling, 1960 sensory memory experiment procedure

A

Participants briefly (0.05 seconds) viewed a visual display of 3x4 letters
Recalled the letters as either
- Whole report: reported letters from the whole display
- Partial report: reported only one row of letters at a time over trials
Within 0.01-1 seconds, a high/medium/low tone signals which row to report

83
Q

Sperling, 1960 sensory memory experiment findings

A

People could recall almost all the items when the sum of their trials were considered
This was only the case when the beeps were presented less than 1 second after they were shown the visual display

84
Q

what did Sperling find about the capacity of sensory memory?

A

it’s quite large but only for a short period of time

85
Q

what brain structure is involved in short-term memory?

A

PFC

86
Q

STM capacity

A

7 plus or minus 2

87
Q

the chunking effect

A

chunking increases with knowledge

88
Q

neuroimaging evidence for the working memory model

A

different areas of the brain are active for visual and verbal STM tasks

89
Q

Patient ELD

A

has problems recalling visual-spatial but not verbal material in the short term. provides evidence for the working memory model

90
Q

Patient PV

A

has problems recalling verbal but not visual material in the short term. provides evidence for the working memory model

91
Q

what are the two kinds of evidence for the working memory model?

A

neuroimaging studies and double dissociation in neuropsychological cases

92
Q

two subcomponents of the phonological loop

A

the phonological store (inner ear) & the articulatory control loop (inner voice)

93
Q

phonological store

A
  • A passive store for verbal information
  • aka inner ear
94
Q

articulatory control loop

A
  • active rehearsal of verbal information
  • used to convert written materials into sounds
  • specialized role in language
  • aka inner voice
95
Q

two subcomponents of the visuo spatial sketchpad

A

the visual cache & the inner scribe

96
Q

the visual cache

A

information about visual features

97
Q

the inner scribe

A

information about spatial location, movement and sequences

98
Q

Hermann Ebbinghaus

A
  • Tested how encode nonsense syllables were retained and forgotten from memory over time
  • Created over 2000 cards of nonsense syllables
  • Learned and relearned the sets of syllables under strict testing conditions
  • Developed the forgetting curve following these experiments
99
Q

the forgetting curve

A
  • Forgetting is exponential
  • Memory loss is largest early on and slows down
100
Q

what can help slow down forgetting?

A

active rehearsal

101
Q

the spacing effect

A
  • Memory is better when the same amount of learning is spread out over time
  • Variation helps with the spacing effect (ex. Studying 30 mins or 60 mins alternative each day rather than consistently studying for 30 mins)
102
Q

levels of processing

A

the strength of a memory depends on the depth of processing when encoding

103
Q

types of processing

A

shallow & deep

104
Q

what type of processing is memory stronger with

A

deep processing

105
Q

Marzi & Viggiano, 2010 levels of processing experiment

A

had participants encode faces that were either upright or inverted in either a shallow or a deep condition. Found that people recognized the faces in the deep encoding condition more than in the shallow condition. They were also able to recognize upright faces much better because of the engagement of the FFA.

106
Q

shallow processing

A

processing that focuses on sensory information

107
Q

deep processing

A

processing that integrates high-level knowledge

108
Q

what’s important about working memory?

A
  • It has a limited capacity and duration
  • It’s where incoming information can relate to prior knowledge and be manipulated
  • It’s where information enters consciousness and awareness
  • It’s critical for long-term memory formation
109
Q

what part of the brain controls the central executive?

A

the PFC

110
Q

what part of the brain controls the phonological loop?

A

Broca & Wernicke’s areas

111
Q

what part of the brain controls the episodic buffer?

A

parietal lobe

112
Q

what part of the brain controls the visuospatial sketchpad?

A

the occipital lobe

113
Q

are parts of working memory mutually consistutive?

A

no, they work together

PSYC 213 (14 decks)

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