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PSYC 213 > Chapter 12: Problem Solving > Flashcards

Chapter 12: Problem Solving Flashcards

1
Q

Problem-solving

A

a cognitive process that involves recognizing there is a problem, analyzing it, and solving it, then verifying the effectiveness of the solution

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2
Q

problem

A

occurs when there is an obstacle between an initial state and a goal state where you do not know the solution right away

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3
Q

size of problems

A

Problems can be small or large

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4
Q

what type of processing is involved in problem-solving?

A

involves taking bottom-up and top-down information into account

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5
Q

what kind of process is problem-solving?

A

a cyclical, recursive, and applicable process

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6
Q

recursive

A

its steps are repeated as many times as necessary

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7
Q

cyclical

A

once you arrive at a solution, you discover a new or similar problem and have to use information gained in the past to work on a solution for the next problem

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8
Q

problem-solving cycle

A
  1. Define the problem
  2. Brainstorm solutions
  3. Pick a solution
  4. Implement solution
  5. Review the results
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9
Q

initial state

A

the initial situation or starting point of a problem

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10
Q

goal state

A

the desired final state or ending situation

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11
Q

problem space theory

A

states that problem-solving is a search with problem space, which includes an initial state, a goal state, and intermediate states, which one moves through using operators

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12
Q

who developed problem space theory?

A

Newell & Simon, 1972

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13
Q

intermediate states

A

all the possible states in between each step in moving from an initial state to a goal state

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14
Q

operators

A

actions that transform the current problem state into another problem state

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15
Q

two types of problems

A

well-defined & ill-defined

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16
Q

well-defined problems

A

have correct answers and certain procedures that lead us to solve them

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17
Q

example of a well-defined problem

A

math problem

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18
Q

algorithms

A

a step-by-step procedure that should always produce a correct solution

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19
Q

what types of problems are easily solvable by algorithms?

A

well-defined problems

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20
Q

ill-defined problems

A

a problem that does not have clear goal states, solutions paths, or expected solutions

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21
Q

can ill-defined problems be solved by computers?

A

Computers don’t solve these problems very well because they don’t have a clear correct answer

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22
Q

Thorndike on problem-solving

A

problem-solving is a reproductive process

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23
Q

Thorndike was a ___

A

behaviourist

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24
Q

reproductive process

A

involves solving a problem by using knowledge from previous experiences and a trial-and-error strategy

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25
Q

trial-and-error

A

an approach to problem-solving that involves trying many different solutions and ruling out those that don’t work

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26
Q

The law of effect

A

states that of several responses made to the same situation, those that are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction are more firmly connected with the situation, while those that are accompanied or closely followed by discomfort are weakened

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27
Q

Thorndike, 1911 trial-and-error experiment

A

with each trial, cats were able to escape a box faster, demonstrating their ability to learn through trial-and-error

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28
Q

Gestalt psychologists on behaviourism

A

Criticized behaviourists for their rigid approach to problem-solving that doesn’t account for phenomena like insight

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29
Q

insight

A

the phenomenon where the solution to a problem suddenly comes into consciousness

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30
Q

Wertheimer, 1959 on problem-solving

A

viewed problem-solving as a productive process

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31
Q

Wertheimer was a ____

A

gestalt psychologist

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32
Q

Productive process

A

the process of problem-solving that occurs when thinking is characterized by the restructuring of information in such a way as to provide a solution.

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33
Q

what type of process accounts for insight

A

productive process

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34
Q

restructuring

A

the process of actively manipulating information to change its representation in your mind

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35
Q

heuristics

A

Mental shortcuts for drawing inferences based on limited information without slow deliberation

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36
Q

The likelihood of using heuristics increases when:

A
  • One is faced with too much information
  • The time to make a decision is limited
  • The decision to be made is unimportant
  • There is access to very little information to use in making the decision
  • An appropriate heuristic happens to come to mind at the moment
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37
Q

working backwards

A

a heuristic in which you begin the problem by focusing on the end result

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38
Q

means-end analysis

A

a heuristic in which you create sub-goals as you move closer to your final goal state. Includes forward and backward movements and constantly evaluating the difference between current and goal states

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39
Q

what heuristic is often involved in AI?

A

means-end analysis

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40
Q

2 barriers to solving problem

A
  • Being unable to ignore irrelevant information
  • Functional fixedness
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41
Q

the ability to filter out irrelevant information throughout life

A

Ignoring irrelevant information develops in children and declines with old age

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42
Q

when is filtering out irrelevant information most difficult?

A

when you are dealing with an ill-defined problem

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43
Q

functional fiixedness

A

the tendency to view objects for their intended purposes because of prior experience with that object

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44
Q

fixations

A

a specific characteristic of a problem

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45
Q

insight problem

A

a problem in which the solution occurs suddenly into your consciousness

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46
Q

non-insight problem

A

a problem distinguished by the process of consciously working through each step of a problem to arrive at a solution

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47
Q

Metcalfe and Wiebem 1987 predictions and insight vs. non-insight problems

A

gave participants either an insight problem or a non-insight problem. Found that while solving non-insight problems, participants were able to predict with some accuracy how close they were to solving the problem, but those solving the insight problem were very poor at estimating how close they were

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48
Q

the two-string problem

A

provided participants with useful and useless hints to solve a two-string problem. Some of the participants who correctly solved the problems mentioned the useless cues as helping them, demonstrating the lack of consciousness in the nature of insight

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49
Q

divergent thinking

A

a thought process that can generate many solutions to a problem to determine one that works well enough to solve the problem

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50
Q

who first defined divergent thinking

A

Guilford, 1967

51
Q

convergent thinkings

A

a thought process that leads to conventional solutions

52
Q

creativity

A

being able to produce novel ideas that are appropriate and relevant to the situation

53
Q

Sternberg’s triarchic theory of human intelligence

A

there are three basic facets of human intelligence: analytical, practical, and creative

54
Q

analytical intelligence

A

the basis of academic problem-solving skills

55
Q

practical intelligence

A

the ability to understand and deal with everyday tasks

56
Q

creative intelligence

A

the ability to use existing knowledge to deal with novelty

57
Q

ideational fluency

A

the number of ideas a person can generate on a particular topic

58
Q

relationship between problem-solving and creativity

A

positive directional relationship

59
Q

the candle problem

A

participants are given a candle, a box of matches, and thumbtacks with the goal of mounting the candle on the wall so the wax won’t drip on the floor

60
Q

when are participants more likely to solve the candle problem

A

Participants were twice as likely to solve the problem if the box of matches was presented separately from the matches

61
Q

The 9 dot problem (Maier, 1930)

A

presented participants with a 3x3 matrix of dots and asked them to connect all of the dots using 4 straight lines drawn without lifting their pencil or retracing lines

62
Q

how did the phrase “think outside of the box” originate?

A

the 9 dot problem

63
Q

Water-jug problem (Luchins, 1942)

A

participants are given a few jugs, each with a different capacity to hold water and asked to measure out a very specific amount of water to end up with

64
Q

mental set

A

the tendency to use solutions that have worked in the past, or the tendency to respond to something in a given, or set, way

65
Q

experts

A

know a great deal about a particular topic or skill

66
Q

novices

A

know little and have little, if any, experience about a particular topic or skill

67
Q

Sheridan & Reingold, 2014 eye fixations and chess study

A

tracked the eye movements of expert and novice chess players and found that while both groups spent more time fixating on relevant areas of the board, the experts were faster at detecting which areas were relevant in the first place

68
Q

chunks

A

any combination of letters, numbers, or sounds that constitute a meaningful whole. It is the proposed unit for measuring capacity in STM

69
Q

Chase & Simon, 1973 chess study

A

expert chess players are far superior to novice players in their memory for chess arrangements but were no better than novices when the pieces were arranged randomly

70
Q

who spends more time thinking about what steps to take?

A

novices

71
Q

who spends more time analyzing problems?

A

experts

72
Q

speed of experts vs. novices in problem-solving

A

Experts take more time to analyze and organize a solution before they being working to solve it, but they quickly catch up and outperform novices who take more time in the trial-and-error stage

73
Q

thinking of novices vs. experts

A

Novices benefit from creative thinking, while experts are stuck in conventional ways of thinking

74
Q

information processing approach to problem-solving

A
  • Describes what happens between a stimulus and a response
  • Sees people as processors of information
  • We draw related information in LTM to WM to help us arrive at a solution
75
Q

heuristics vs. algorithms

A
  • Computers use algorithms while humans use heuristics
  • Heuristics are less predictable than algorithms
76
Q

Tower of Hanoi

A

consists of three pegs with three or more discs stacked on the first peg with the largest peg on the bottom and the smallest on the top. The challenge is to move the discs to another peg and restack them with the largest on the bottom and the smallest on the top, while only moving one disc at a time and not placing a larger disc on top of a smaller disc

77
Q

what problems are computers better at solving?

A

Computers can calculate all possible moves at once, making them faster at solving well-defined problems like the Tower of Hanoi and chess

78
Q

applicable

A

apply successful cycles (solutions) to new problems

79
Q

social problem-solving is an example of ___

A

an ill-defined problem

80
Q

brain activity during ill-defined problems

A

Greater activity in the right lateral prefrontal cortex for ill-defined anagrams

81
Q

cognitive load

A

the amount of information held in mind at one time

82
Q

what kind of problems carry a greater cognitive load?

A

ill-defined problems

83
Q

Moravec’s Paradox

A

Artificial intelligence (AI) can solve well-defined problems well, but not ill-defined problems and simple skills. AI is often defined by the use of algorithms, deep neural networks, that work well with certainty but not with uncertainty

84
Q

brute force approach to problem-solving

A

A systematic algorithm that represents all the possible steps from the problem to the goal state

85
Q

pro of the brute force approach to problem-solving

A

guaranteed to find a solution

86
Q

con of the brute force approach to problem-solving

A

inefficient

87
Q

combinatorial explosion

A

computing too many alternatives

88
Q

examples of heuristics

A
  • Hill climbing strategy
  • Means end analysis
  • Working backwards
89
Q

hill climbing strategy

A

Select the operation that brings you closer to the goal without examining the whole problem space

90
Q

downsides to the hill climbing strategy

A

This strategy can lead to a false outcome, a local maximum (subgoal) is mistaken as the final goal

91
Q

why doesn’t the hill climbing strategy always work?

A

because some problems require you to move away from the goal to solve it

92
Q

the hobbits and orcs problem

A
  • There are 3 hobbits and 3 orcs who need to cross a river
  • The boat can only hold 2 creatures
  • The number of orcs can never exceed the number of hobbits
  • At least one creature must bring the boat back each time
93
Q

what does the hobbits and orcs problem demonstrate?

A

that the hill-climbing approach doesn’t always work

94
Q

the benefit of the means-end heuristic

A

More flexible approach than hill-climbing

95
Q

expert radiologists vs. novices

A

Expert radiologists use global visual processes when viewing scans

96
Q

the tumour problem demonstrates

A

the benefits of analogical problem-solving

97
Q

the tumour problem

A
  • Only about 8% of people can solve the tumour problem
  • But, the story about the invading army gives you some hints for solving the tumour problem, making it easier to solve
  • With the invading army story, 76% of participants can solve the tumour problem
98
Q

analogical problem-solving

A

Making comparisons between two situations; applying the solution from one of these situations to the other situation

99
Q

target problem

A

the situation the person is currently in

100
Q

source problem

A

the situation that shares similarities with the target

101
Q

are people good at analogical problem-solving?

A

People aren’t very good at using analogies unless they are reminded

102
Q

The Einstellung Effect

A

The bias to use familiar methods to solve problems

103
Q

downsides of the Einstellung Effect

A
  • This can result in an inability to seek and use a better method to solve a given problem
  • This leads to rigid thinking and blocks in problem-solving
104
Q

children and the candle problem

A

Children of different ages solved the candle problem because they have less fixedness without pre-utilization

105
Q

pre-utilization

A

experience with the objects

106
Q

mental fixedness

A

Responding with previously learned rule sequences even when they are inappropriate or less productive

107
Q

order of problems in the water jug problem

A
  • People will implement the less effective solution if they are given a set of problems in order (harder ones at the start)
  • Those who are only given the easier task will use the easier solution
108
Q

gestalt switches

A

the experience of having a sudden switch in how you see something

109
Q

the four features of insight

A
  • suddenness
  • ease
  • positive
  • confidence
110
Q

suddenness

A

the solution pops into mind with a surprise

111
Q

ease

A

the solution comes quickly and fluently

112
Q

positive

A

a pleasant experience, even before assessing if the solution is effective

113
Q

confidence

A

the solution is believed to be the right one

114
Q

the triangle problem

A

Participants must move three circles to get the triangle to point to the bottom of the page

115
Q

the necklace problem

A
  • Participants are given four separate chains that are each three links in length
  • It costs 2 cents to open a link and 3 to close one
  • All links are closed at the start
  • Join all links of a chain into a single circle at a cost of no more than 15 cents
116
Q

is the necklace problem an insight problem?

A

The solution involves restructuring the problem, a key characteristic of insight

117
Q

mental impasse

A

being stuck in a solution path

118
Q

does insight problem-solving come with awareness?

A

no, people can’t accurately predict performance

119
Q

does non-insight problem-solving come with awareness

A

yes, step-by-step algorithms help predict performance

120
Q

warmth ratings

A

a person’s feeling that they are approaching a solution

121
Q

do feelings of knowing predict problem-solving abilities?

A

The feeling of knowing ratings predicted algebra performance but not insight problem-solving ability

122
Q

metacognitive assessment

A

what you know about what you know

123
Q

is metacognitive assessment accurate for problem-solving?

A

it’s accurate for non-insight problems, but not for insight problems

PSYC 213 (14 decks)

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