Chapter 2: How to Study Cognition Flashcards
mind-body problem
How are mental events related to or caused by physical mechanisms in the brain?
dualism
the mind and the brain consist of fundamentally different substances or properties
who is dualism attributed to
Plato & Descartes
monism
there is only one kind of basic substance in the world; the mind and brain are one substance
physicalism/materialism
the only kind of reality is physical reality
idealism
the only kind of reality is mental
neutral monism
there is only one kind of substance that is neither just physical or mental, and the mind and body are both composed of that same element
what approach to the mind-body problem do most cognitive scientists take?
Most cognitive scientists believe that behaviour is the product of physical processes in the brain (type of pragmatic materialism)
structuralism
a school of psychology that relies on introspection of one’s own conscious state to understand the mind
who is structuralism attributed to?
Wilhelm Wundt
introspection
a technique used to study the mind by training people to examine their own conscious experience
what school of thought is introspection associated with?
structuralism
what are the downsides of introspection
it’s not a scientifically valid method because it’s only available to conscious awareness, it cannot be verified, or replicated
replication
repeating the same experiment with the same methods
cortical blindness
a condition in which an individual with damage to the visual cortex will report having no visual experience, despite having working eyes
blindsight
when someone who has cortical blindness shows behaviour consistent with perception
think-aloud protocol
a research method that consists of having participants verbally describe their thought process as they are performing a specific task
behaviourism
a school of psychology that emphasized using observable stimuli and behaviours as the basis of scientific experimentation. focused on animal research because it is highly controlled
who is behaviourism attributed to
John Watson
stimulus
something that is used to stimulate a subject’s senses as part of an experimental procedure
response
the behaviour that the subject engages in after a stimulus is presented
Little Albert experiment
a study employed by Watson to show that behavioural responses can be dramatically modified by conditioning
classical conditioning
when an involuntary behaviour is paired with a stimulus, the behaviour will eventually be elicited by the stimulus alone
operant conditioning (Skinner)/ instrumental learning (Thorndike)
a method of conditioning that reinforces behaviours through rewards and punishments
B.F. Skinner
developed the Skinner box, a chamber used to contain and automatically provide feedback to an animal during operant conditioning experiments
Noam Chomsky’s criticism of behaviourism
Noam Chomsky argued that people engage in novel behaviour that they have never had the chance to learn, so behaviourism can never fully explain behaviour through conditioning
latent learning
Learning in the absence of any conditioning
functions
mapping inputs to outputs
algorithm
a set of operations that produces the input/output mapping of a function
cognitive revolution
a movement in the 1950s that proposed that the brain could be understood as a computational system. accepted that there are internal mental states & accepted the scientific method
cognitivism
an approach that uses behaviour as an approach for developing and testing theories of the underlying processes of the mind
reaction time
a measure of how long it takes a subject to respond to a given task
Donder’s reaction time experiment conclusion
the detection condition was fastest followed by discrimination, then choice because the more involved a cognitive process is, the longer the reaction time
hypothesis-driven research
begins with a guess based on available evidence that is tested
phenomenon-driven research
an effect is discovered and researchers conduct follow-up research to determine the nature of the effect
stroop effect
reporting the ink colour of words is slowed down when the word spells out the name of a different colour
ways to measure a subject’s response
correctness, thresholds, reaction time
speed-acuracy tradeoff
when experimental participants sacrifice accuracy for speed or vice versa
individual differences
variations in performance across different individuals in cognitive tasks
cognitive neuroscience
merges brain imaging with behavioural experimentation
behavioural neuroscience
assess behavioural and neurological factors in animals as models of human function
computational neuroscience
seeks to build computer models of events to better understand and predict outcomes
3 conditions in Donder’s reaction time experiment
detection, discrimination, and choice condition
detection condition
the subject has to respond as quickly as possible to the stimulus by pushing a button
discrimination condition
participants were presented with two possible stimuli. If one appeared they would respond by pressing the button and if the other appeared they would respond by not pressing the button
choice condition
the subject has to respond as quickly as possible to two different stimuli by pressing the respective button
where did the study of cognition begin
Ancient Greece. Philosophers thought about the locus of the mind (sensation, memory) and the basis of human personality & took an analytical approach
epistemology
the philosophical study of human knowledge
deductive reasoning
knowledge involves experience and reason
Plato’s philosophy of cognition
deductive reasoning, rationalism, and the importance of prior knowledge. there is an innate aspect to our mental processes
empiricism
all knowledge comes from experience
Aristotle’s philosophy of cognition
emphasized empiricism, observational reasoning, and associations among observations
psychophysics
study basic cognitive phenomenon by linking sensory experiences to physical changes
mental chronometry
estimating time for a participant to perceive something
who created the thought-meter?
Wilhelm Wundt
Wilhelm Wundt
began a lab in 1879 and practiced structuralism. Wanted to identify the simplest units of the mind that he thought followed certain laws to create complex thoughts. Used psychophysics & mental chronometry & created the “thought meter”
functionalism
asked why the mind works and focused on the usefulness of knowledge
pragmatic
focusing on practical approaches to problems
William James
functionalist who believed that consciousness is personal and cannot be broken down into parts as it is constantly changing. He emphasized an eclectic methodological approach to study the usefulness and variability of accessing knowledge in the real world
criticisms of functionalism
Criticized for being difficult to study some of these ideas, especially if cognition is always changing
what sparked the rise in behaviourism in the 1900s?
Psychology is struggling to be taken seriously as a science
criticisms of behaviourism
- Overestimated the scope of their explanations
- Cannot account for complex human behaviour
- The assumption that learning was the same for all individuals and across species is false
Waugh & Norman’s Model of Memory
The number of words remembered decreases as the distractor task increases in length
information processing view
We process information to reduce uncertainty. Since processing information takes time, the more uncertain something is, the longer it will take
William Hick, 1952 study
- Research question: what is the relationship between choice reaction time, a proxy for processing, and the amount of information within an event?
- Participants saw a display of 10 lamps
- A lamp lit up every few seconds
- Participants were asked to press a button when a lamp lit up
- For some trials, one light would light up and for others, any of the 10 lamps could light up
- People were slower to detect a light if any lamp could light up than when only one lamp could light up
Hick’s law
a mathematical equation to show that the more information contained in a signal, the longer it takes to make a response to the signal
when does it take longer to make a decision
when there is greater number of choices or uncertainty of choice
decision-making and time of day
Reaching decision fatigue early in the day has consequences in our ability to make later decisions
air traffic controllers study
participantslistened to two simultaneous messages: each message had a call signal (familiar words) and unrelated words (unfamiliar). they were to memorize and repeat back as much of these messages as they could. The air traffic controllers could remember both call signals, but only one of the unrelated word messages for the simultaneous messages. This is because the familiar call signals require less information processing.
ecological validity
The extent to which the findings of a research study can be generalized to real-life naturalistic settings
behaviourism view of language
language is learned through conditioning
assumptions of cognitive research
- Mental processes exist
- Mental processes can be studied scientifically using rigorous experimentation
- We are active information processes that manipulate incoming information to produce behaviour
- The basis of mental processes is the brain
interactionism
The mind and the brain interact to induce events in each other
interactionism is a type of
dualism
the idea that we have a soul falls under
interactionism
rene descartes
suggests the pineal gland is the principal seat of the soul. proponent of interactionism
epiphenomenalism
Mental thoughts (mind) are caused by physical events (brain) but thoughts do not affect physical event (one-way interaction)
analogy for epiphenomenalism
steam coming off a train
who is responsible for phrenology
Gall and Spurzheim (late 1700s)
phrenology
Parts of the brain correspond to mental functions and personality. Well-used mental functions: related brain area grows (bump). Under-used mental functions: related brain area shrinks (dent)
what is the false assumption phrenology is based on?
highly developed functions have larger brain areas (only size matters)
functional specialization
Modern cognitive neuroscience identifies brain areas or networks that support a particular cognitive function
behavioural measures include
Behavioural experiments (voluntary responses)
Psychophysiological measurements (involuntary responses)
behavioural neuroscience methods include
animals models
cognitive neuroscience methods include
Patient cases
Neuroimaging tools
psychophysiological measurements
Measures activity in the PNS in response to things that humans perceive or imagine
examples of psychophysiological measurements
eye movements, skin conductance
skin conductance
Skin conducts electricity when it sweats. Detect this electrical conduction to estimate an emotional arousal response. Test how emotional arousal impacts cognitive tasks, like attention and memory
PTSD & skin conductance experiment
Three participant groups: veterans with PTSD, veterans without PTSD, and control participants were subjected to two test conditions: white noise and combat sounds. Higher skin conductance in people with PTSD when hearing combat sounds
behavioural neuroscience animal models
Researchers use animals to conduct behavioural experiments, like lesioning the brain or collecting physiological brain measures
animal models strengths
- Foundational discoveries about how the mind works
- provides a causal link between the brain and behaviour
animal models weakness
Differences in brain structure and function across species puts limits on the generalization of these findings
cognitive neuroscience neuropsychological cases
Study brain function by comparing the behavioural of brain-injured patients to healthy control participants
If brain injury to area X leads to impairments on specific cognitive function, then that brain area must support that function
corpus callosum
The connection between the two hemispheres
When cut, brain hemispheres cannot communicate with each other
function of the left hemisphere
speech and language
function of the right hemisphere
visual-spatial processing
left hemisphere in split-brain patients
Without communication, information to the right visual field can be verbally named and described in words
right hemisphere in split-brain patients
Without communication, information to the left visual field cannot be described verbally but can be expressed via visuo-spatial processes
neuroimaging techniques
Measures neural communication, which is a chemical, electrical, and metabolic event
3 types of neuroimaging techniques & purposes
- Electroencephalography (EEG): measures activity in response to a stimulus at a particular time
- Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI): measures activity in brain areas during a task
- Brain stimulation techniques: affects activity in the brain, either enhancing or inhibiting temporarily
Electroencephalography (EEG)
EEG measures activity in a large group of neurons at certain times
Provides estimates of when the brain is active
Event Related Potential (ERP)
electrical activity produced by an active brain
strength of EEG
Good temporal resolution (timing information)
weakness of EEG
Poor spatial resolution (location information), Lots of things can affect ERP signals, which means a researcher needs to collect a lot of experimental trials and this limits the studies you can run
epiphenomenalism is a type of
dualism
3 main methods to study the brain-behaviour link
behavioural, behavioural neuroscience, and cognitive neuroscience
plato was influential for
theory development
aristotle was influential for
experimental methods
decision fatigue
the deteriorating quality of decisions by an individual after a long series of decision-making (i.e. after taxing a limited store of cognitive resources)
spatial resolution
info about where activity is located
temporal resolution
info about when activity occurred
types of mri & purpose
Structural MRI: used to detect structural anomalies in the brain
Functional fMRI: indirectly measures brain activity using blood flow
how does fMRI work?
Active brain areas need oxygen (metabolic energy). A magnet detects changes in oxygenated blood. Measure the ratio of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood flow in regions of the brain during a task. Use measurements to create a spatial image of brain activity
body parts & inanimate objects fMRI study
Downing et al., 2001: participants viewed images of body parts or inanimate objects. There was consistent activity in the right lateral occipitotemporal cortex when viewing body parts, demonstrating evidence of a cortical selective region for processing body parts and thus functional specialization
yes/no questions fMRI study
Owen et al., 2006: using brain specialization, healthy patients and patients in a coma were asked to respond to yes/no questions by thinking about tennis (SMA) or walking through their home (PPA) while in an MRI scanner. Even those in a coma answered correctly.
Parahippocampal place area (PPA)
for thinking about spatial layouts
Supplementary motor area (SMA)
for performing or imagining movement
strengths of fMRI
Provides good spatial resolution, lots of replication & validation, noninvasive
weaknesses of fMRI
Doesn’t provide good temporal resolution to determine the timing of brain activity, it’s a correlational method, it’s very noisy
brain stimulation
A noninvasive method of changing brain activity that can inhibit or increase activity
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)
a focal magnetic field induces a temporary change in brain activity
TMS and memory study
Voss et al., 2014: participants in the TMS group vs. Sham TMS group had improved scores on the post-training compared to the pre-training memory test
strengths of TMS
good for testing causality (effect of temporary lesion or stimulation), noninvasive
weaknesses of TMS
stimulation techniques have broad effects on the brain, so it’s hard to localize effects, the way it works isn’t entirely clear, issues with the length of the effect
problem with modern neuroimaging methods
Linking a single brain area to functions might be too simplistic; we must study the brain as an interconnected netowrk
functional connectivity
looking at the connections in the brain and how they might change when someone is doing a task
multi-voxel pattern analysis
a way of comparing patterns of activity in the brain between different states
example of a multi-voxel pattern analysis study
Weaverdck et al., 2020: analyzed the patterns of activity in the brain associated looking at dogs vs. babies
what type of conditioning is concerned with voluntary behaviour?
operant conditioning
what type of conditioning is concerned with involuntary behaviour?
classical conditioning
