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PSYC 213 > Chapter 2: How to Study Cognition > Flashcards

Chapter 2: How to Study Cognition Flashcards

1
Q

mind-body problem

A

How are mental events related to or caused by physical mechanisms in the brain?

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2
Q

dualism

A

the mind and the brain consist of fundamentally different substances or properties

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3
Q

who is dualism attributed to

A

Plato & Descartes

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4
Q

monism

A

there is only one kind of basic substance in the world; the mind and brain are one substance

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5
Q

physicalism/materialism

A

the only kind of reality is physical reality

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6
Q

idealism

A

the only kind of reality is mental

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7
Q

neutral monism

A

there is only one kind of substance that is neither just physical or mental, and the mind and body are both composed of that same element

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8
Q

what approach to the mind-body problem do most cognitive scientists take?

A

Most cognitive scientists believe that behaviour is the product of physical processes in the brain (type of pragmatic materialism)

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9
Q

structuralism

A

a school of psychology that relies on introspection of one’s own conscious state to understand the mind

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10
Q

who is structuralism attributed to?

A

Wilhelm Wundt

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11
Q

introspection

A

a technique used to study the mind by training people to examine their own conscious experience

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12
Q

what school of thought is introspection associated with?

A

structuralism

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13
Q

what are the downsides of introspection

A

it’s not a scientifically valid method because it’s only available to conscious awareness, it cannot be verified, or replicated

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14
Q

replication

A

repeating the same experiment with the same methods

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15
Q

cortical blindness

A

a condition in which an individual with damage to the visual cortex will report having no visual experience, despite having working eyes

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16
Q

blindsight

A

when someone who has cortical blindness shows behaviour consistent with perception

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17
Q

think-aloud protocol

A

a research method that consists of having participants verbally describe their thought process as they are performing a specific task

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18
Q

behaviourism

A

a school of psychology that emphasized using observable stimuli and behaviours as the basis of scientific experimentation. focused on animal research because it is highly controlled

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19
Q

who is behaviourism attributed to

A

John Watson

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20
Q

stimulus

A

something that is used to stimulate a subject’s senses as part of an experimental procedure

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21
Q

response

A

the behaviour that the subject engages in after a stimulus is presented

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22
Q

Little Albert experiment

A

a study employed by Watson to show that behavioural responses can be dramatically modified by conditioning

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23
Q

classical conditioning

A

when an involuntary behaviour is paired with a stimulus, the behaviour will eventually be elicited by the stimulus alone

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24
Q

operant conditioning (Skinner)/ instrumental learning (Thorndike)

A

a method of conditioning that reinforces behaviours through rewards and punishments

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25
Q

B.F. Skinner

A

developed the Skinner box, a chamber used to contain and automatically provide feedback to an animal during operant conditioning experiments

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26
Q

Noam Chomsky’s criticism of behaviourism

A

Noam Chomsky argued that people engage in novel behaviour that they have never had the chance to learn, so behaviourism can never fully explain behaviour through conditioning

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27
Q

latent learning

A

Learning in the absence of any conditioning

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28
Q

functions

A

mapping inputs to outputs

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29
Q

algorithm

A

a set of operations that produces the input/output mapping of a function

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30
Q

cognitive revolution

A

a movement in the 1950s that proposed that the brain could be understood as a computational system. accepted that there are internal mental states & accepted the scientific method

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31
Q

cognitivism

A

an approach that uses behaviour as an approach for developing and testing theories of the underlying processes of the mind

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32
Q

reaction time

A

a measure of how long it takes a subject to respond to a given task

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33
Q

Donder’s reaction time experiment conclusion

A

the detection condition was fastest followed by discrimination, then choice because the more involved a cognitive process is, the longer the reaction time

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34
Q

hypothesis-driven research

A

begins with a guess based on available evidence that is tested

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35
Q

phenomenon-driven research

A

an effect is discovered and researchers conduct follow-up research to determine the nature of the effect

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36
Q

stroop effect

A

reporting the ink colour of words is slowed down when the word spells out the name of a different colour

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37
Q

ways to measure a subject’s response

A

correctness, thresholds, reaction time

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38
Q

speed-acuracy tradeoff

A

when experimental participants sacrifice accuracy for speed or vice versa

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39
Q

individual differences

A

variations in performance across different individuals in cognitive tasks

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40
Q

cognitive neuroscience

A

merges brain imaging with behavioural experimentation

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41
Q

behavioural neuroscience

A

assess behavioural and neurological factors in animals as models of human function

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42
Q

computational neuroscience

A

seeks to build computer models of events to better understand and predict outcomes

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43
Q

3 conditions in Donder’s reaction time experiment

A

detection, discrimination, and choice condition

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44
Q

detection condition

A

the subject has to respond as quickly as possible to the stimulus by pushing a button

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45
Q

discrimination condition

A

participants were presented with two possible stimuli. If one appeared they would respond by pressing the button and if the other appeared they would respond by not pressing the button

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46
Q

choice condition

A

the subject has to respond as quickly as possible to two different stimuli by pressing the respective button

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47
Q

where did the study of cognition begin

A

Ancient Greece. Philosophers thought about the locus of the mind (sensation, memory) and the basis of human personality & took an analytical approach

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48
Q

epistemology

A

the philosophical study of human knowledge

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49
Q

deductive reasoning

A

knowledge involves experience and reason

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50
Q

Plato’s philosophy of cognition

A

deductive reasoning, rationalism, and the importance of prior knowledge. there is an innate aspect to our mental processes

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51
Q

empiricism

A

all knowledge comes from experience

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52
Q

Aristotle’s philosophy of cognition

A

emphasized empiricism, observational reasoning, and associations among observations

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53
Q

psychophysics

A

study basic cognitive phenomenon by linking sensory experiences to physical changes

54
Q

mental chronometry

A

estimating time for a participant to perceive something

55
Q

who created the thought-meter?

A

Wilhelm Wundt

56
Q

Wilhelm Wundt

A

began a lab in 1879 and practiced structuralism. Wanted to identify the simplest units of the mind that he thought followed certain laws to create complex thoughts. Used psychophysics & mental chronometry & created the “thought meter”

57
Q

functionalism

A

asked why the mind works and focused on the usefulness of knowledge

58
Q

pragmatic

A

focusing on practical approaches to problems

59
Q

William James

A

functionalist who believed that consciousness is personal and cannot be broken down into parts as it is constantly changing. He emphasized an eclectic methodological approach to study the usefulness and variability of accessing knowledge in the real world

60
Q

criticisms of functionalism

A

Criticized for being difficult to study some of these ideas, especially if cognition is always changing

61
Q

what sparked the rise in behaviourism in the 1900s?

A

Psychology is struggling to be taken seriously as a science

62
Q

criticisms of behaviourism

A
  • Overestimated the scope of their explanations
  • Cannot account for complex human behaviour
  • The assumption that learning was the same for all individuals and across species is false
63
Q

Waugh & Norman’s Model of Memory

A

The number of words remembered decreases as the distractor task increases in length

64
Q

information processing view

A

We process information to reduce uncertainty. Since processing information takes time, the more uncertain something is, the longer it will take

65
Q

William Hick, 1952 study

A
  • Research question: what is the relationship between choice reaction time, a proxy for processing, and the amount of information within an event?
  • Participants saw a display of 10 lamps
  • A lamp lit up every few seconds
  • Participants were asked to press a button when a lamp lit up
  • For some trials, one light would light up and for others, any of the 10 lamps could light up
  • People were slower to detect a light if any lamp could light up than when only one lamp could light up
66
Q

Hick’s law

A

a mathematical equation to show that the more information contained in a signal, the longer it takes to make a response to the signal

67
Q

when does it take longer to make a decision

A

when there is greater number of choices or uncertainty of choice

68
Q

decision-making and time of day

A

Reaching decision fatigue early in the day has consequences in our ability to make later decisions

69
Q

air traffic controllers study

A

participantslistened to two simultaneous messages: each message had a call signal (familiar words) and unrelated words (unfamiliar). they were to memorize and repeat back as much of these messages as they could. The air traffic controllers could remember both call signals, but only one of the unrelated word messages for the simultaneous messages. This is because the familiar call signals require less information processing.

70
Q

ecological validity

A

The extent to which the findings of a research study can be generalized to real-life naturalistic settings

71
Q

behaviourism view of language

A

language is learned through conditioning

72
Q

assumptions of cognitive research

A
  1. Mental processes exist
  2. Mental processes can be studied scientifically using rigorous experimentation
  3. We are active information processes that manipulate incoming information to produce behaviour
  4. The basis of mental processes is the brain
73
Q

interactionism

A

The mind and the brain interact to induce events in each other

74
Q

interactionism is a type of

A

dualism

75
Q

the idea that we have a soul falls under

A

interactionism

76
Q

rene descartes

A

suggests the pineal gland is the principal seat of the soul. proponent of interactionism

77
Q

epiphenomenalism

A

Mental thoughts (mind) are caused by physical events (brain) but thoughts do not affect physical event (one-way interaction)

78
Q

analogy for epiphenomenalism

A

steam coming off a train

79
Q

who is responsible for phrenology

A

Gall and Spurzheim (late 1700s)

80
Q

phrenology

A

Parts of the brain correspond to mental functions and personality. Well-used mental functions: related brain area grows (bump). Under-used mental functions: related brain area shrinks (dent)

81
Q

what is the false assumption phrenology is based on?

A

highly developed functions have larger brain areas (only size matters)

82
Q

functional specialization

A

Modern cognitive neuroscience identifies brain areas or networks that support a particular cognitive function

83
Q

behavioural measures include

A

Behavioural experiments (voluntary responses)
Psychophysiological measurements (involuntary responses)

84
Q

behavioural neuroscience methods include

A

animals models

85
Q

cognitive neuroscience methods include

A

Patient cases
Neuroimaging tools

86
Q

psychophysiological measurements

A

Measures activity in the PNS in response to things that humans perceive or imagine

87
Q

examples of psychophysiological measurements

A

eye movements, skin conductance

88
Q

skin conductance

A

Skin conducts electricity when it sweats. Detect this electrical conduction to estimate an emotional arousal response. Test how emotional arousal impacts cognitive tasks, like attention and memory

89
Q

PTSD & skin conductance experiment

A

Three participant groups: veterans with PTSD, veterans without PTSD, and control participants were subjected to two test conditions: white noise and combat sounds. Higher skin conductance in people with PTSD when hearing combat sounds

90
Q

behavioural neuroscience animal models

A

Researchers use animals to conduct behavioural experiments, like lesioning the brain or collecting physiological brain measures

91
Q

animal models strengths

A
  • Foundational discoveries about how the mind works
  • provides a causal link between the brain and behaviour
92
Q

animal models weakness

A

Differences in brain structure and function across species puts limits on the generalization of these findings

93
Q

cognitive neuroscience neuropsychological cases

A

Study brain function by comparing the behavioural of brain-injured patients to healthy control participants
If brain injury to area X leads to impairments on specific cognitive function, then that brain area must support that function

94
Q

corpus callosum

A

The connection between the two hemispheres
When cut, brain hemispheres cannot communicate with each other

95
Q

function of the left hemisphere

A

speech and language

96
Q

function of the right hemisphere

A

visual-spatial processing

97
Q

left hemisphere in split-brain patients

A

Without communication, information to the right visual field can be verbally named and described in words

98
Q

right hemisphere in split-brain patients

A

Without communication, information to the left visual field cannot be described verbally but can be expressed via visuo-spatial processes

99
Q

neuroimaging techniques

A

Measures neural communication, which is a chemical, electrical, and metabolic event

100
Q

3 types of neuroimaging techniques & purposes

A
  1. Electroencephalography (EEG): measures activity in response to a stimulus at a particular time
  2. Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI): measures activity in brain areas during a task
  3. Brain stimulation techniques: affects activity in the brain, either enhancing or inhibiting temporarily
101
Q

Electroencephalography (EEG)

A

EEG measures activity in a large group of neurons at certain times
Provides estimates of when the brain is active

102
Q

Event Related Potential (ERP)

A

electrical activity produced by an active brain

103
Q

strength of EEG

A

Good temporal resolution (timing information)

104
Q

weakness of EEG

A

Poor spatial resolution (location information), Lots of things can affect ERP signals, which means a researcher needs to collect a lot of experimental trials and this limits the studies you can run

105
Q

epiphenomenalism is a type of

A

dualism

106
Q

3 main methods to study the brain-behaviour link

A

behavioural, behavioural neuroscience, and cognitive neuroscience

107
Q

plato was influential for

A

theory development

108
Q

aristotle was influential for

A

experimental methods

109
Q

decision fatigue

A

the deteriorating quality of decisions by an individual after a long series of decision-making (i.e. after taxing a limited store of cognitive resources)

110
Q

spatial resolution

A

info about where activity is located

111
Q

temporal resolution

A

info about when activity occurred

112
Q

types of mri & purpose

A

Structural MRI: used to detect structural anomalies in the brain
Functional fMRI: indirectly measures brain activity using blood flow

113
Q

how does fMRI work?

A

Active brain areas need oxygen (metabolic energy). A magnet detects changes in oxygenated blood. Measure the ratio of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood flow in regions of the brain during a task. Use measurements to create a spatial image of brain activity

114
Q

body parts & inanimate objects fMRI study

A

Downing et al., 2001: participants viewed images of body parts or inanimate objects. There was consistent activity in the right lateral occipitotemporal cortex when viewing body parts, demonstrating evidence of a cortical selective region for processing body parts and thus functional specialization

115
Q

yes/no questions fMRI study

A

Owen et al., 2006: using brain specialization, healthy patients and patients in a coma were asked to respond to yes/no questions by thinking about tennis (SMA) or walking through their home (PPA) while in an MRI scanner. Even those in a coma answered correctly.

116
Q

Parahippocampal place area (PPA)

A

for thinking about spatial layouts

117
Q

Supplementary motor area (SMA)

A

for performing or imagining movement

118
Q

strengths of fMRI

A

Provides good spatial resolution, lots of replication & validation, noninvasive

119
Q

weaknesses of fMRI

A

Doesn’t provide good temporal resolution to determine the timing of brain activity, it’s a correlational method, it’s very noisy

120
Q

brain stimulation

A

A noninvasive method of changing brain activity that can inhibit or increase activity

121
Q

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

A

a focal magnetic field induces a temporary change in brain activity

122
Q

TMS and memory study

A

Voss et al., 2014: participants in the TMS group vs. Sham TMS group had improved scores on the post-training compared to the pre-training memory test

123
Q

strengths of TMS

A

good for testing causality (effect of temporary lesion or stimulation), noninvasive

124
Q

weaknesses of TMS

A

stimulation techniques have broad effects on the brain, so it’s hard to localize effects, the way it works isn’t entirely clear, issues with the length of the effect

125
Q

problem with modern neuroimaging methods

A

Linking a single brain area to functions might be too simplistic; we must study the brain as an interconnected netowrk

126
Q

functional connectivity

A

looking at the connections in the brain and how they might change when someone is doing a task

127
Q

multi-voxel pattern analysis

A

a way of comparing patterns of activity in the brain between different states

128
Q

example of a multi-voxel pattern analysis study

A

Weaverdck et al., 2020: analyzed the patterns of activity in the brain associated looking at dogs vs. babies

129
Q

what type of conditioning is concerned with voluntary behaviour?

A

operant conditioning

130
Q

what type of conditioning is concerned with involuntary behaviour?

A

classical conditioning

PSYC 213 (14 decks)

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