Chapter 7 Flashcards
what is the study of cells, tissues, and organs?
anatomy and physiology
___ is when most structures are paired on each side of the body.
Bilateral Symmetry
what is the imaginary division line between the two halves of a vertebrates body?
median plane
the ___ contains the heart and lungs while the ___ contains the digestive, reproductive, ad excretory organs.
thoracic cavity; abdominal cavity
What are the animal body’s five basic levels of organization?
cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and the body as a whole.
What means closer to the tail
caudal
what means closer to the head?
cranial
what means toward the periphery/ in the direction away from the trunk
distal
closer to the animals back
dorsal
away from the medial plane
lateral
the side of the forefoot that contacts the ground when standing
palmar/volar
the side of the hind food that contacts the ground while standing
plantar/volar
closer to the tip of the nose
rostral
closer to the belly
ventral
___: the outer boundary of the cell, it provides stability and fluidity to the cell. It is a semipermeable barrier between the cell and its environment. This selectively allows nutrients and gases to enter the cell and wastes and other materials to leave the cell.
Cell Membrane
___: the fluid environment that includes all of the cellular matter enclosed by the cell membrane except for the nucleus. this contains a number of functional structures that do the biochemical work of the cell.
cytoplasm
___: a generally rounded structure surrounded by a nuclear membrane that separates it from the cytoplasm. it contains the genetic material that directs the function of the cell, it can be thought of as the cell’s brain.
cell nucleus
cell processes that require energy in order to occur.
active
cell processes that occur as the result of differences in concentration of ions between the inside and the outside of the cell
passive.
what do cells assemble together with a specialized function create?
tissues
what are the four tissue types?
epithelial and endothelial, connective tissues, muscle, and nerve.
what type of tissue covers all external body surfaces and lines organs that are continuous with these outer surfaces, such as the digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive systems?
epithelial
what are examples of epithelial tissues?
mucosal lining of the mouth and skin.
What is the epidermis, or outer layer of skin, an example of?
stratified epithelial tissue, multilayer epethelium
What tissue is the lining of internal spaces of the body such as heart, blood vessels, and the thoracic and abdominal cavities?
endothelial
What tissue binds together or supports cells, other tissues, and organs throughout the body?
connective tissues
What type of tissues are bones, tendons, and subcutaneous tissue?
connective
what are the 3 classifications of connective tissue?
loose, fibrous, or special.
what tissue is elongated cells, that contract when stimulated?
muscle tissue
what are the two types of muscle?
smooth and striated
what tissue conducts impulses throughout the body, responds to stimuli, and sends signals about the external and internal environment of the body to the brain, and relays the brain’s directions to muscles and organs of the body?
nerve tissues
what is a structure that contains at least two different types of tissue functioning together for a common purpose?
organs
what is composed of two or more different organs that work together to provide a common function?
organ systems
What are the 11 major organ systems?
integumentary, skeletal, muscular, circulatory, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive, nervous, and endocrine
What is the organ system that protects an animal from the outside environment?
skin/integument
What four basic structures do vertebrates have in the skin?
epidermis, dermis, glands, hypodermis
___ is the outer later of skin, which continually renews itself by losing dead cells.
Epidermis
___ is the second layer of skin, formed largely of elastic connective tissues. it contains nerves, blood vessels, hair follicles, smooth muscle fibers, pigment cells, and some glands.
dermis
___ is the tissue that is open to the surface of the skin, and secrete fluids that protect, lubricate, and help regulate temperature. sebaceous and mucus secreting glands lubricate the skin. some animals, like humans, have these that secrete salt and water to help regulate body temperature.
glands
the amorphous layer of connective tissues and fat that loosely binds the skin to the underlying tissues.
hypodermis.
another word for internal skeleton
endoskeleton
external skeleton
exoskeleton
a rigid structure of bone that encases the brain
cranium
what are the two types of connective tissue in the vertebrate skeleton?
bone and cartilage
what is a matrix?
a nonliving material with living cells
as calcium is introduced to young animals bones, what happens?
the bone hardens over time from cartilage to bone.
What are long bones?
things like fingers, femur, tibia, fibula, humerus, radius, ulna
what are short bones?
carpals, tarsals
what are flat bones?
ribs, scapula, parts of the cranium
irregular bones
vertebrae, mandible, pelvic
sesamoid bones
patella
main shaft of a long bone
diaphysis
specialized area at the ends of the long bones where growth occurs in young animals
epiphysis
the space inside long bones that contains red or yellow marrow. red marrow is where blood cells are produced.
medullary cavity
a white fibrous membrane that covers a bone except at the joint surface. it contains bone forming cells and is the tissue to which tendons and ligaments attach
periosteum
What are the two parts of the skull
cranium and the facial portion
What are the five regions of the vertebral column (which is attached by ligaments, with cartilage pads called intervertebral disks between them)
cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccygeal
what three parts make up the thoracic/chest region?
sternum, ribs, thoracic vertebrae.
what 3 bones does the sternum consist of?
manubrium, body, and xiphoid
what is the space between the ribs?
intercostal
what is the appendicular skeleton made up of?
limbs, pectoral girdle, and the pelvic girdle
a pivoting movement, such as turning the head from side to side
rotation
bending or folding, such as the action of an elbow joint
flexion
opening the joint
extension
moving bone away from the midline of the body
abduction
moving toward the midline of the body
adduction
what type of muscles contract voluntarily and can be controlled by the animals conscious thought?
skeletal muscles
a special type of striated muscle that is located only in the heart, and its movement is involuntary.
cardiac muscle
muscle that involuntary contracts in response to its immediate environment
smooth muscle
What is the medium of transport in the circulatory system
blood
what is blood made of
plasma, different types of cells such as red and white and platelets.
What do leukocytes comprise of (white blood cells)?
granulocytes, monocytes, and lymphocytes
blood cell that contains hemoglobin molecules, which combine with o2 an co2 to transport respiratory gases throughout the body. the iron atoms in the hemoglobin give it the red color
erythrocytes
the type of blood cell that helps the body deal with infections and injury and provide other protective and repair responses.
leukocytes (white blood cells)
large cells with a multilobular nuclei. these are defined by the staining characteristics of the microscopic granules in the cytoplasm.
granulocytes
three subdivisions of granulocytes
neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
the most numerous of the granulocytes, are highly specialized cells involved in the inflammatory response and host defense, they engulf and destroy invading bacteria
neutrophils
modulate inflammation through the release of various chemical mediators.
eosinophils and basophils
blood cells that increase in the presence of parasitic infections and allergic reactions
eosinophils
rarely found in the blood of a health animal, but are numerous in association with inflammatory reactions.
basophils
circulate the bloodstream for 1-3 days before moving into body tissues to change into macrophages.
monocytes
commonly found in lymph vessels, have a single round nucleus and lack cytoplasmic granules.
lymphocytes
three types of lymphocytes
T cells, B cells, and natural killer (NK) cells
their function is to recognize foreign substances and generate specific responses that are tailored to eliminate the pathogen or the pathogen infected cell
T and B cells
cell-mediated immunity, which aims to directly kill pathogens or damaged tissue cells
T cells
responds to pathogens by differentiating into plasma cells for the purpose of producing antibodies, which are proteins that recognize and bind to foreign substances and recruit other cells to complete the destruction.
B cells
defends the body from tumors and virus infected cells
NK cells
help reduce blood loss by sticking to the vessel walls near and injured site, where they release chemicals that aid in the formation of hemostatic plugs or clots.
throbocytes
a four chambered muscular organ in mammals and birds that lies in the thoracic cavity inside a sac of connective tissue call pericardium.
the heart
the three types of blood vessels:
arteries, veins, and capillaries
the largest artery of the body
aorta
carry blood away from the heart
artieries
return blood to the heart
veins
connect arteries and veins
capillaries
the arteries that supplies the heart with blood
coronary artery
True or false: the atria have thicker muscular walls than the ventricles
false
a system that removes excess fluid and wastes from tissues
flow of lymph
delivers pathogens and cancer cells to the immune cells located within lymph nodes
lymphatic system
the extracellular fluid of body tissues
lymph
How is lymph formed?
when a portion of the blood plasma leaks out through the capillary walls and into the surrounding tissue spaces
What are the lymph nodes that are found in the rear leg called
popliteal
the exchange of gases between an organism and its environment
respiration
where does respiration occur?
at the cellular level with the exchange of gases between cells and tissue fluids around them.
hair like projections that line the mucous membranes
cilia
what is the function of the fluid in the pleural sac?
it lubricates the chest and lung linings to prevent friction.
what does the epiglottis do?
prevents food from entering the trachea
what are the four chambers in a ruminants stomach
rumen, reticulum, omasum, and abomasum
what provides raw materials to build proteins for generating and repairing tissue
amino acids
essential to the formation of bones and teeth, and needed to complete many enzymatic actions
minerals
necessary for completion of the various chemical reactions that occur throughout the body
vitamins
a large fermentation vat that contracts to mix the contents and release fermentation gases through the esophagus to the mouth
rumen
fermentation and regurgitation for cud chewing
reticulum
routes fermented food materials from the rumen to the abomasum
omasum
a true stomach in ruminants that secretes digestive enzymes
abomasum
a mixture of stomach contents with acidic gastric secretions
chyme
the opening of the stomach which leads to the intestines
pyloric sphincter
the first section of the small intestine
duodenum
what two parts does the large intestine consist of
cecum and colon
where is water absorption and nutrient absorption completed?
in the colon
what animals lack a gall bladder
some fish, birds, rats and horses
what else does the liver do besides make bile?
stores glycogen, vitamins, minerals
What does the pancreas do?
secretes digestive enzymes through the pancreatic ducts into the small intestine
which nutritional components are necessary to complete chemical reactions in the body?
vitamins
what organ is both exocrine and endocrine
pancreas
What shape are chicken and cows kidneys?
lobulated
what shape are the kidneys of a horse?
heartshaped
what is the basic function of the kidney?
filters blood/nephron
male hormone secreted by the testes
androgens (includes testosterone)
the system in males that shares a site for reproductive and urinary systems
urogenital systems
What two systems does the nervous system consist of?
central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system
the master controller of the voluntary and involuntary actions
CNS
the remaining nervous system tissue besides the brain and the spinal cord
PNS
What does CSF stand for?
cerebrospinal fluid
nerve insulator
myelin
the system made up of a number of paired and unpaired ductless glands that produce one or more specific types of hormones
endocrine
what are the major structures of the endocrine system
pituitary gland, adrenal glands, thyroid and parathyroid glands, pancreas, gonads.
the adrenal ___ produces the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine
medulla
What is the contraction phase of the heart called
systole
what does the right atrium do?
receives blood from the body
What type of muscle is self-stimulating
cardiac
what process occurs in the lymph nodes?
white blood cells destroy bacteria and particles found in body fluids
what substance is not reabsorbed in the kidney tubules?
creatinine
in which structure do sperm mature and are also stored?
epididymis
which of the following hormones are produced by the thyroid gland?
thyroxine and calcitonin
what does the right atrium do?
collects blood from the body
what is the valve located between the right atrium and the right ventricle?
tricuspid valve
in most animals, what percent of the blood is comprised of plasma?
55%
how many layers of tissue comprise the walls of the heart?
3
what does the right atrium do?
collects blood from the body
how many heart chambers do fish have?
two
