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Psychology 101 > Chapter 7 > Flashcards

Chapter 7 Flashcards

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1
Q

Learning

A

The process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

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2
Q

Associative learning

A

Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

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3
Q

Stimulus

A

Any event or situation that evokes a response

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4
Q

Cognitive learning

A

The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

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5
Q

Classical conditioning

A

A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

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6
Q

Behaviorism

A

The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not (2)

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7
Q

Neutral stimulus (NS)

A

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

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8
Q

Unconditional response (UR)

A

In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth)

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9
Q

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

A

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and automatically- triggers response (UR)

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10
Q

Conditioned response (CR)

A

In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

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11
Q

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A

In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned

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12
Q

Acquisition

A

In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

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13
Q

An experimenter sounds a tone just before delivering an air puff to your blinking eye. After several repetitions, you blink to the tone alone. What is the NS? The US? The UR? The CS? The CR?

A

NS= tone before procedure; US= Air puff; UR= Blink to air puff; CS= tone after procedure; CR= blink to tone

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14
Q

Pavlov’s classic experiment

A

Pavlov presented a neutral stimulus (a tone) just before an unconditioned stimulus (food in mouth). The neutral stimulus then became a conditioned stimulus, a producing a conditioned response

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15
Q

The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

A

Extinction

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16
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

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17
Q

Generalization

A

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

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18
Q

The first step of classical conditioning, when an NS becomes a CS, is called ________. When a US no longer follows the CS, and the CR becomes weakened, this is _________.

A

Acquisition; extinction

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19
Q

Discrimination

A

In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

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20
Q

If the aroma of cake baking sets your mouth to watering, what is the US? The CS? The CR?

A

The cake (and its taste) are the US. The associated aroma is the CS. Salivation to the aroma is the CR

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21
Q

What conditioning principle is affecting the snail’s affections

A

Generalization

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22
Q

In Watson and Rayner’s experiments, “Little Albert” learned to fear a white rat after repeatedly experiencing a loud noise as the rat was presented. In this experiment, what was the US? The UR? The NS? The CS? The CR?

A

The US was the loud noise; the UR was the fear response; The NS was the rat before it was paired with the noise; the CS was the rat after pairing; the CR was fear

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23
Q

Operant conditioning

A

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

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24
Q

Law of effect

A

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behavior followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

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25
Q

Operant chamber

A

In operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking

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26
Q

Reinforcement

A

In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

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27
Q

Shaping

A

An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

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28
Q

With ________ conditioning, we learn associations between events we do not control. With __________ conditioning, we learn associations between our behavior and resulting events

A

Classical; operant

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29
Q

Positive reinforcement

A

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

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30
Q

Negative reinforcement

A

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment)

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31
Q

Primary reinforcer

A

An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

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32
Q

Conditioned reinforcer

A

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

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33
Q

Continuous reinforcment

A

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

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34
Q

Reinforcement schedule

A

A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

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35
Q

Partial (intermittent) reinforcement

A

Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction that does continuous reinforcement

36
Q

Fixed-ratio schedule

A

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

37
Q

Variable-ratio schedule

A

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

38
Q

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsd

A

Fixed-interval schedule

39
Q

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

A

Variable-interval schedule

40
Q

Punishment

A

An event that tends to decrease the behavior it follows

41
Q

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

A

Respondent behavior

42
Q

Organism associates events

A

Classical conditioning

43
Q

Organism associates behavior and resulting events

A

Operant conditioning

44
Q

Involuntary, automatic

A

Classical conditioning

45
Q

Voluntary, operates on environment

A

Operant conditioning

46
Q

Associating events; NS is paired with US and becomes CS

A

Classical conditioning

47
Q

Associating response with a consequence (reinforcer or punisher)

A

Operant conditioning

48
Q

CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented alone

A

Classical conditioning

49
Q

Responding decreases when reinforcement stops

A

Operant conditioning

50
Q

The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR

A

Classical conditioning

51
Q

The reappearance, after a rest period extinguished response

A

Operant conditioning

52
Q

The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS

A

Classical conditioning

53
Q

Organism’s response to similar stimuli is also reinforced

A

Operant conditioning

54
Q

The learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a US

A

Classical conditioning

55
Q

Organism learns that certain responses, but not others, will be reinforced

A

Operant conditioning

56
Q

Operant behavior

A

Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

57
Q

Salivating in response to a tone paired with food is a(n) ________ behavior; pressing a bar to obtain food is a(n) ________ behavior.

A

respondent; operant

58
Q

Cognitive map

A

A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it

59
Q

Latent learning

A

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

60
Q

Intrinsic motivation

A

A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

61
Q

A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

A

Extrinsic motivation

62
Q

Observational learning

A

Learning by observing others

63
Q

Modeling

A

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

64
Q

Frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy

A

Mirror neurons

65
Q

Positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

A

Prosocial behavior

66
Q

Learning is defined as “the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring _______ or ________.”

A

Information, behaviors

67
Q

Two forms of associative learning are classical conditioning, in which the organisms associates ________, and operant conditioning, in which the organism associates _______.

A

two or more stimuli; a response and consequence

68
Q

In Pavlov’s experiments, the tone started as a neural stimulus, and then became a(n) _______ stimulus

A

Conditioned

69
Q

Dogs have been taught to salivate to a circle but not to a square. This process is an example of ________.

A

Discrimination

70
Q

After Watson and Rayner classically conditioned Little Albert to fear a white rat, the child later showed fear in response to a rabbit, a dog, and a sealskin coat. This illustrates

A

Generalization

71
Q

Thorndike’s law of effect was the basis for _______ work on operant conditioning and behavior control

A

Skinners

72
Q

One way to change behavior is to reward natural behaviors in small steps, as they got closer and closer to a desired behavior. This process is called ________.

A

Shaping

73
Q

Your dog is barking so loudly that it’s making your ears ring. You clap your hands, the dog stops barking, your ears stop ringing, and you think to yourself, “I’ll have to do that when he barks again. “The end of the barking was for you a

A

Negative reinforcer

74
Q

Reinforcing a desired response only some of the time it occurs is called ______ reinforcement

A

Partial

75
Q

A restaurant is running a special deal. After you buy four meals at full price, your fifth meal will be free. This is an example of a _______ schedule of reinforment

A

fixed-ratio

76
Q

The partial reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after unpredictable time periods is a _______-________ schedule

A

Variable-interval

77
Q

A medieval proverb notes that “a burnt child dreads the fire.” in operant conditioning, the burning would be an example of a?

A

punisher

78
Q

Which research showed that conditioning can occur even when the unconditioned stimulus (US) does not immediately follow the neutral stimulus (NS)?

A

Garcia and Koelling’s taste-aversion studies

79
Q

Taste-aversion research has shown that some animals develop aversions to certain tastes but not to sights or sounds. This finding supports

A

Darwin’s principle that natural selection favors traits that aid survival

80
Q

Evidence that cognitive processes play an important role in learning comes in part from studies in which rats?

A

Develop cognitive maps

81
Q

Rats that explored a maze without any reward were later able to run the maze as well as other rats that had received food rewards for running the maze. The rats that had learned without reinforcement demonstrated ______ _______.

A

latent learning

82
Q

Children learn many social behaviors by imitating parents and other models. This type

A

Observational learning

83
Q

According to Bandura, we learn by watching models because we experience _______ reinforcement or ________ punishment.

A

Vicarious; vicarious

84
Q

Parents are most effective in getting their children to imitate them if

A

Their words and actions are consistent

85
Q

Some scientists believe that the brain has _______ neurons that enable observation and imitation.

A

mirror

86
Q

Most experts agree that repeated viewing of TV violence

A

dulls viewer’s sensitivity to violence

Psychology 101 (18 decks)

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