Chapter 7 Flashcards
Learning
The process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors
Associative learning
Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)
Stimulus
Any event or situation that evokes a response
Cognitive learning
The acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language
Classical conditioning
A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
Behaviorism
The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not (2)
Neutral stimulus (NS)
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
Unconditional response (UR)
In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth)
Unconditioned stimulus (US)
In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and automatically- triggers response (UR)
Conditioned response (CR)
In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
In classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned
Acquisition
In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response
An experimenter sounds a tone just before delivering an air puff to your blinking eye. After several repetitions, you blink to the tone alone. What is the NS? The US? The UR? The CS? The CR?
NS= tone before procedure; US= Air puff; UR= Blink to air puff; CS= tone after procedure; CR= blink to tone
Pavlov’s classic experiment
Pavlov presented a neutral stimulus (a tone) just before an unconditioned stimulus (food in mouth). The neutral stimulus then became a conditioned stimulus, a producing a conditioned response
The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced
Extinction
Spontaneous recovery
The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
Generalization
The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
The first step of classical conditioning, when an NS becomes a CS, is called ________. When a US no longer follows the CS, and the CR becomes weakened, this is _________.
Acquisition; extinction
Discrimination
In classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
If the aroma of cake baking sets your mouth to watering, what is the US? The CS? The CR?
The cake (and its taste) are the US. The associated aroma is the CS. Salivation to the aroma is the CR
What conditioning principle is affecting the snail’s affections
Generalization
In Watson and Rayner’s experiments, “Little Albert” learned to fear a white rat after repeatedly experiencing a loud noise as the rat was presented. In this experiment, what was the US? The UR? The NS? The CS? The CR?
The US was the loud noise; the UR was the fear response; The NS was the rat before it was paired with the noise; the CS was the rat after pairing; the CR was fear
Operant conditioning
A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
Law of effect
Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behavior followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
Operant chamber
In operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking
Reinforcement
In operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
Shaping
An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
With ________ conditioning, we learn associations between events we do not control. With __________ conditioning, we learn associations between our behavior and resulting events
Classical; operant
Positive reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response
Negative reinforcement
Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: Negative reinforcement is not punishment)
Primary reinforcer
An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
Conditioned reinforcer
A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer
Continuous reinforcment
Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
Reinforcement schedule
A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced
Partial (intermittent) reinforcement
Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction that does continuous reinforcement
Fixed-ratio schedule
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
Variable-ratio schedule
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsd
Fixed-interval schedule
In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
Variable-interval schedule
Punishment
An event that tends to decrease the behavior it follows
Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
Respondent behavior
Organism associates events
Classical conditioning
Organism associates behavior and resulting events
Operant conditioning
Involuntary, automatic
Classical conditioning
Voluntary, operates on environment
Operant conditioning
Associating events; NS is paired with US and becomes CS
Classical conditioning
Associating response with a consequence (reinforcer or punisher)
Operant conditioning
CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented alone
Classical conditioning
Responding decreases when reinforcement stops
Operant conditioning
The reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished CR
Classical conditioning
The reappearance, after a rest period extinguished response
Operant conditioning
The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS
Classical conditioning
Organism’s response to similar stimuli is also reinforced
Operant conditioning
The learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that do not signal a US
Classical conditioning
Organism learns that certain responses, but not others, will be reinforced
Operant conditioning
Operant behavior
Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences
Salivating in response to a tone paired with food is a(n) ________ behavior; pressing a bar to obtain food is a(n) ________ behavior.
respondent; operant
Cognitive map
A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it
Latent learning
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Intrinsic motivation
A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment
Extrinsic motivation
Observational learning
Learning by observing others
Modeling
The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy
Mirror neurons
Positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior
Prosocial behavior
Learning is defined as “the process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring _______ or ________.”
Information, behaviors
Two forms of associative learning are classical conditioning, in which the organisms associates ________, and operant conditioning, in which the organism associates _______.
two or more stimuli; a response and consequence
In Pavlov’s experiments, the tone started as a neural stimulus, and then became a(n) _______ stimulus
Conditioned
Dogs have been taught to salivate to a circle but not to a square. This process is an example of ________.
Discrimination
After Watson and Rayner classically conditioned Little Albert to fear a white rat, the child later showed fear in response to a rabbit, a dog, and a sealskin coat. This illustrates
Generalization
Thorndike’s law of effect was the basis for _______ work on operant conditioning and behavior control
Skinners
One way to change behavior is to reward natural behaviors in small steps, as they got closer and closer to a desired behavior. This process is called ________.
Shaping
Your dog is barking so loudly that it’s making your ears ring. You clap your hands, the dog stops barking, your ears stop ringing, and you think to yourself, “I’ll have to do that when he barks again. “The end of the barking was for you a
Negative reinforcer
Reinforcing a desired response only some of the time it occurs is called ______ reinforcement
Partial
A restaurant is running a special deal. After you buy four meals at full price, your fifth meal will be free. This is an example of a _______ schedule of reinforment
fixed-ratio
The partial reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after unpredictable time periods is a _______-________ schedule
Variable-interval
A medieval proverb notes that “a burnt child dreads the fire.” in operant conditioning, the burning would be an example of a?
punisher
Which research showed that conditioning can occur even when the unconditioned stimulus (US) does not immediately follow the neutral stimulus (NS)?
Garcia and Koelling’s taste-aversion studies
Taste-aversion research has shown that some animals develop aversions to certain tastes but not to sights or sounds. This finding supports
Darwin’s principle that natural selection favors traits that aid survival
Evidence that cognitive processes play an important role in learning comes in part from studies in which rats?
Develop cognitive maps
Rats that explored a maze without any reward were later able to run the maze as well as other rats that had received food rewards for running the maze. The rats that had learned without reinforcement demonstrated ______ _______.
latent learning
Children learn many social behaviors by imitating parents and other models. This type
Observational learning
According to Bandura, we learn by watching models because we experience _______ reinforcement or ________ punishment.
Vicarious; vicarious
Parents are most effective in getting their children to imitate them if
Their words and actions are consistent
Some scientists believe that the brain has _______ neurons that enable observation and imitation.
mirror
Most experts agree that repeated viewing of TV violence
dulls viewer’s sensitivity to violence
