Chapter 7

Question 1

practice qs on pg 287

Answer 1

kk

Question 2

She points out that in racially diverse elementary schools it is quite common to see children of different ethnicities working, playing, and eating together. However, by the time these children reach age 12 or 13, self-segregation has begun. Why?

Answer 2

Tatum believes that when children enter adolescence, they begin to search for a personal identity.

Question 3

why do kids need to simplify their world

Answer 3

. Children form categories on the same basis and for the same reasons that adults do. However, children have an even greater need to simplify their world through categorization because of their more limited mental abilities (Gelman & Meyer, 2011). Categorization helps children develop an accurate picture of their social world. By doing so, children form a more accurate perception of the world around them; if they did not notice these real differences, then their views of reality would be distorted or inaccurate.

Question 4

does prejudice devp in all kids who categorize tho

Answer 4

no. Social categorization does not inevitably lead to prejudice, however: Children who become prejudiced will learn to associate negative beliefs and emotions with some of the distinctions they notice; nonprejudiced children will not (Liben, 2014).

Question 5

what are some meaningful categs for infants

Answer 5

Using this paradigm, Joseph Fagan and Lynn Singer (1979) found that 5- to 6-month-old infants spent significantly more time looking at a new photograph when it was of a person of a different gender or age than the person in the first photo, which suggests that gender and age are meaningful categories for infants.

Question 6

race as a preference

Answer 6

David Kelly and colleagues (2005) found that awareness of racial groups also develops at an early age. In their study, newborn White children showed no preference for looking at pictures of adults from various racial groups but White 3-month-old children preferred White adult faces over those of Black, Middle-Eastern, and Asian adults. Although this same-race preference emerges early in development, it is a learned preference, not an inherent one: Most infants are exposed mainly to people of their own race and so show a preference for that group; infants who have had about equal exposure to people of both their own and other races do not show a same-race preference (Lee et al., 2017).

Question 7

doll technique by kenneth and mamie clark

Answer 7

Kenneth and Mamie Clark (1947) pioneered the study of children’s use of racial categories with their doll technique (see Box 7.6). In this approach, a child is presented with two or more dolls; in the simplest scenario, only a White doll with blond hair and a Black doll with black hair are used. Then the child is asked, “Which looks like a White (or Black) child?” When the doll technique is used with 3-year-olds, fewer than 25 percent of them can point to the correct doll (or, in some research, picture of a doll) when provided with the labels Black and White. However, by 4 or 5 years of age, accuracy increases to 75 percent or higher regardless of their own ethnicity (Williams & Morland, 1976). TKenneth and Mamie Clark (1947) pioneered the study of children’s use of racial categories with their doll technique (see Box 7.6). In this approach, a child is presented with two or more dolls; in the simplest scenario, only a White doll with blond hair and a Black doll with black hair are used. Then the child is asked, “Which looks like a White (or Black) child?” When the doll technique is used with 3-year-olds, fewer than 25 percent of them can point to the correct doll (or, in some research, picture of a doll) when provided with the labels Black and White. However, by 4 or 5 years of age, accuracy increases to 75 percent or higher regardless of their own ethnicity (Williams & Morland, 1976). Thus, it appears that the preschool years are critical in the development of awareness of social groups based on race.

Question 8

what can b concluded based on kenneth and mamie study

Answer 8

Kenneth and Mamie Clark (1947) pioneered the study of children’s use of racial categories with their doll technique (see Box 7.6). In this approach, a child is presented with two or more dolls; in the simplest scenario, only a White doll with blond hair and a Black doll with black hair are used. Then the child is asked, “Which looks like a White (or Black) child?” When the doll technique is used with 3-year-olds, fewer than 25 percent of them can point to the correct doll (or, in some research, picture of a doll) when provided with the labels Black and White. However, by 4 or 5 years of age, accuracy increases to 75 percent or higher regardless of their own ethnicity (Williams & Morland, 1976). Thus, it appears that the preschool years are critical in the development of awareness of social groups based on race.

Question 9

some qs kenneth and mamie asked the kids

Answer 9

“Give me the doll you like best.”

“Give me the doll that is the nice doll.”

“Give me the doll that looks bad.”

“Give me the doll that is a nice color.” The Clarks found that 60 percent of the children preferred the White doll in response to positive questions (such as “looks best”) whereas 25 percent preferred the Black doll (the remaining 15 percent gave ambiguous responses).

Question 10

The Clarks concluded that many Black children would prefer to be

Answer 10

White and that this preference “reflects their knowledge that society prefers white people”

Question 11

essentialism

Answer 11

A basic factor is essentialism, the belief that members of a category all have similar psychological characteristics and that these characteristics are unchanging.

Question 12

Social learning theory (Bandura, 1986) provides a comprehensive explanation for

Answer 12

many aspects of social development, including the development of prejudice, in terms of three learning processes: direct teaching, observational learning, and vicarious learning.

Question 13

direct teaching

Answer 13

Direct teaching occurs when an individual is rewarded for behaving in a certain way. For example, a White child might receive a smile from a parent for avoiding children of color on the playground.

Question 14

obsv learning

Answer 14

Children can also be taught indirectly through observational learning and vicarious learning. Observational learning involves imitating the attitudes or behavior of either a live model, such as a parent or peer, or a symbolic model, such as a character in a book or television show. Thus, children might overhear one of their parents make a derogatory remark about an outgroup to another adult and adopt that attitude as their own.

Question 15

vicarious learning

Answer 15

Vicarious learning occurs when the child observes someone else being rewarded for a particular attitude or behavior. For instance, if one boy sees another boy being applauded by his same-gender peers for calling a girl an insulting name, then the first child might learn vicariously that it is a good idea to call girls insulting names. Three important sources of social learning for children are parents, peers, and the media.

Question 16

In addition, Cecil Meeusen and Kristof Dhont (2015) found that parent–child agreement is highest for adolescents who discuss what types of issues w their parents

Answer 16

social and political issues with their parents (Meeusen & Dhont, 2015), reflecting parent–child similarities in underlying social ideologies such as right-wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation

Question 17

deseg vs integ

Answer 17

Mere desegregation involves only a mixture of groups no longer formally separated. It does not refer to the quality of the intergroup interaction. Desegregated campus life can range from positive intergroup contact to a living hell of intergroup strife … Genuine integration refers to positive intergroup contact that meets [the necessary] conditions for prejudice-reducing contact … Integration goes beyond present-day U.S. society by providing the conditions for removing the racial and ethnic threats and stereotypes that divide Americans.

Question 18

cooperative learning

Answer 18

Cooperative learning. A set of educational techniques, collectively referred to as cooperative learning, has been devised to create learning environments which implement the conditions necessary for successful contact as part of the day-to-day educational process

Question 19

multicult ed- what are the four comps

Answer 19

-expanding the curriculum to include information on the history and culture of different groups and their contributions to society as a whole;
-educating students on the ways in which cultural assumptions and perspectives influence the interpretation of events. For example, James Banks (2001) suggests that a history teacher could have students discuss how a Lakota Sioux historian might describe the westward expansion of the United States;
-helping students develop positive attitudes toward social groups other than their own; and
-creating a school culture that promotes equality.

Question 20

anti- bias ed goal

Answer 20

Often conducted in conjunction with multicultural education, anti-bias education “aims to provide students with a heightened awareness of institutional racism [and other forms of institutional bias] and with the skills to reduce it within their sphere of influence”

Question 21

intergroup attitudes and tv

Answer 21

Other techniques, such as having students read about or imagine positive intergroup contact can prepare children for actual contact (Skinner & Meltzoff, 2019; R. Turner & Cameron, 2016), perhaps because they promote perspective-taking and empathy and reduce intergroup anxiety (see Chapter 6). Media other than readings can also be effective. For example, in meta-analysis of studies conducted in 15 countries Marie-Louise Mares and Zhongdang Pan (2013) found that the television show Sesame Street had positive effects on children’s intergroup attitudes. Materials do not have to be designed specifically to reduce prejudice for them to have a positive effect; see Box 7.8 for how the Harry Potter books can reduce prejudice.

Question 22

Intergroup prejudices develop at an early age. Both Black and White children first exhibit prejudice toward other ethnic groups by 3 or 4 years of age. For White children who have contact with members of other groups, racial/ethnic prejudice reaches its highest levels at about .

Answer 22

5 years, after which it declines. However, White children with little intergroup contact and Black children show increasing levels of prejudice over time. The pattern of development of racial attitudes for children of other groups is similar to the patterns seen in Black children

Question 23

By first grade, both Black and White children show an own-race bias in intergroup contact that increases with age, peaking at around the seventh grade. During high school, what do students say abt cross-race ints

Answer 23

students report having positive cross-race interactions at school, but have few positive cross-race interactions outside of school.

Question 24

Within most Western cultures, gender-based prejudice emerges when (at what age)

Answer 24

Within most Western cultures, gender-based prejudice emerges during preschool and increases until about age 8. Between ages 8 and 10, gender-based prejudice declines slightly, possibly due to romantic interest in the other gender.

Question 25

By age 3, both boys and girls display more positive behaviors toward members of their own gender than toward members of the other gender and prefer to interact with same-gender peers. However, by age 13 more than half of friendship groups are composed of

Answer 25

children of both genders, and by age 18 all groups are mixed in terms of gender composition.

Question 26

In general, although heterosexual women and men tend to maintain the belief that homosexuality is wrong from early adolescence through young adulthood, other beliefs become less negative as they get older. However, these attitudes can be very context dependent. For example, reported discomfort with interacting with gay and lesbian peers increases as

Answer 26

the intimacy of the situation increases. Also, the acceptability of anti-gay behavior declines as its severity increases; for example, social exclusion is seen as more acceptable than harassment or assault.

Question 27

Although young children have essentially neutral attitudes towards transgender peers, their attitudes become more

Answer 27

negative by adolescence.

Question 28

Prejudice develops in children as a by-product of normal cognitive development and proceeds in three stages:

Answer 28

the development of social categories, the categorization of people, and the development of prejudice and stereotypes.

Question 29

Although there is some evidence that even infants have an implicit awareness of some social categories, because infants cannot talk, we cannot ask them to tell us about the sorts of categorical distinctions they make. Explicit awareness of racial categories such as Black and White emerges at

Answer 29

4 or 5 years of age, but awareness of other racial categories such as Native Americans, Asians, and Latinx arises a few years later, and awareness of categories that are not based on physical characteristics, such as religion and nationality, develops even later. Explicit awareness of social categories based on gender is present slightly earlier in development, by 3 years of age.

Question 30

Once children have established social categories, they can sort

Answer 30

people into them. They also begin to associate positive and negative characteristics (stereotypes) and emotions (prejudice) with members of those categories.

Question 31

Social learning theory explains prejudice in terms of direct reinforcement, modeling and imitation, and vicarious learning. Direct teaching of prejudice is not very common; whats more common?

Answer 31

indirect teaching of prejudice from live models (such as family members and peers) and symbolic models in the media is primarily responsible for the learning of prejudiced attitudes. In addition, child-rearing practices may foster or inhibit social ideologies, such as right-wing authoritarianism and social dominance orientation, that are related to prejudice.

Question 32

Psychologists and educators have developed a number of school-based interventions aimed at reducing or preventing the development of prejudice in children, most of which involve promoting positive intergroup contact. However, research on the outcomes of school desegregation programs in the United States has often found that desegregation sometimes led to an increase rather than a decrease in prejudice. One reason for this outcome is that, for the most part,

Answer 32

these programs did not put into practice the conditions necessary for successful intergroup contact. In addition, even when schools try to implement positive intergroup contact experiences, school policy decisions and students’ attitudes and beliefs can reduce opportunities for contact.

Question 33

Cooperative learning programs are designed to implement the conditions necessary for successful intergroup contact within the everyday classroom context. Although cooperative learning programs reduce prejudice and discrimination toward outgroup members who are learning partners, there is little evidence that

Answer 33

their effects generalize to attitudes toward outgroups as a whole.

Question 34

Because children often have had little experience with intergroup contact, they may need guidance to help them adjust to diverse classrooms. Multicultural and anti-bias education programs attempt to provide this guidance by

Answer 34

providing students with knowledge about other cultural groups, instilling respect for other groups, and helping children develop the attitudes and skills needed to interact effectively with members of other groups. Programs that provide direct contact with members of the outgroup and that focus on developing empathy and perspective-taking skills have been found to be especially effective.

Question 35

Teachers can influence their students’ intergroup attitudes both by

Answer 35

modeling positive attitudes and by developing good relationships with their students.

Question 36

Although limited research has been conducted on the long-term effects of school-based intergroup contact, the existing research shows

Answer 36

positive results.