Chapter 11

Question 1

good table on 491

Answer 1

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Question 2

gender polarization;

Answer 2

that is, people believe that what is masculine is not feminine and that what is feminine is not masculine

Question 3

discrimination-affection paradox

Answer 3

What explains the paradox between the generally positive view of women and the overwhelming evidence that gender-based discrimination exists? To begin our explanation of this discrimination-affection paradox (Eckes, 1994), we must first distinguish between women as a social group and women as occupants of social roles.

Question 4

Even so, many jobs remain gender-segregated.

Answer 4

Occupations such as secretary, speech therapist, and social worker are dominated by women, whereas occupations such as engineer, chief executive, and computer and information systems manager are dominated by men

Question 5

This is the backlash effect,

Answer 5

where women who show stereotypically male characteristics of agency experience negative reactions such as social rejection, hiring discrimination, and sabotage

Question 6

The stress of trying to meet the cultural expectations for manhood can have a variety of negative consequences for some men, including

Answer 6

low self-esteem, increased probability of drug use, suspension from school, and other unhealthy effects (Pleck et al., 1993). In general, men’s strong adherence to being a “real man” is associated with poorer physical and mental health outcomes (O’Neil, 2012; Wong et al., 2017). These expectations may lead some men to commit violent and aggressive acts (Kimmel, 2002) and, as we will see, to endorse anti-gay prejudice (Pleck et al., 1994). Being a “real man” also has a precarious social status, one that is difficult to achieve and, once earned, easy to lose.

Question 7

manhood as precarious.

Answer 7

In a series of studies, Joseph Vandello and colleagues (2008) found that people indeed see manhood as precarious. For example, people think manhood, more than womanhood, is hard won and that men, more than women, must continually prove their honor

Question 8

transgender scale on pg 516

Answer 8

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Question 9

Mental health professionals also hold negative attitudes toward bisexual individuals, rating them as

Answer 9

more likely to have sexual and romantic difficulties and as more confused and conflicted than gay or heterosexual clients

Question 10

The gender belief system consists of stereotypes about and attitudes toward

Answer 10

gender, gender identity, sexual orientation, and people of different genders. This belief system also includes the roles deemed appropriate for members of these social groups, and perceptions of people who violate those gender roles.

Question 11

Gender-related terminology has changed rapidly; as a result, determining appropriate terminology can be difficult. Knowledge of

Answer 11

appropriate gender-associated terms and an understanding of the gender belief system helps explain attitudes toward women, people who are transgender, and people who are lesbian, gay, or bisexual.

Question 12

Androcentrism is the tendency to center society around men, cisgenderism is the tendency to center society around individuals whose

Answer 12

gender identity aligns with their sex assigned at birth, and heterosexism is the tendency to center society around heterosexuals’ needs. These hierarchies relegate women, people who are transgender, and people who are lesbian, gay, or bisexual to the periphery of society as stigmatized group members.

Question 13

Gender stereotypes are multidimensional and include

Answer 13

male-associated traits, represented by an agentic cluster, and female-associated traits, represented by a communal cluster. They also include beliefs about men’s and women’s appropriate social roles, their cognitive abilities, their physical characteristics, and the emotions deemed appropriate for them. These components of the gender belief system are gender-polarized—people believe that what is masculine is not feminine, and vice versa.

Question 14

Gender beliefs are highly stable across

Answer 14

time, age group, and culture, but there can be differences depending on the social class and ethnicity of the people being rated.

Question 15

Although men are the higher status gender group, research on attitudes toward women and men has found a “women are wonderful” effect—people like the typical woman more than they like the typical man. Even so, gender-based prejudice is widespread; for example,

Answer 15

there is evidence for gender wage gaps around the world and women experience extreme forms of discrimination such as sexual assault. There is, then, a discrimination-affection paradox: People like women as a social group, but still discriminate against them.

Question 16

The concepts of benevolent and hostile sexism provide one explanation for

Answer 16

the discrimination-affection paradox. Hostile sexist beliefs are derogatory whereas benevolent sexist beliefs are more positive. Benevolent sexism rewards traditional women and hostile sexism punishes nontraditional women.

Question 17

The path to women’s success is not always clear and it is difficult to identify the barriers. According to role congruity theory,

Answer 17

two forms of prejudice keep women from leadership positions. The first stems from the belief that women do not possess the characteristics needed for leadership; this belief discourages women from pursuing leadership positions in the first place.

Question 18

Women who attain leadership positions face a second form of prejudice created by beliefs about what women are like and what leaders should be like—that is, a man. Women who show stereotypically male characteristics of agency can experience a

Answer 18

backlash effect in the form of negative reactions such as social rejection. Because women cannot meet both sets of expectations, they are less likely to be hired for leadership positions and may face negative performance evaluations if they are hired.

Question 19

Women may avoid pursuing nontraditional careers because they believe these jobs require agentic traits. Factors that encourage women to consider nontraditional careers include

Answer 19

training women about possible discrimination, providing role models, addressing stereotype threat, and educating women about the situational factors that affect perceptions of people in nontraditional roles.

Question 20

The male gender role also is limiting: People expect men to be strong and tough and feminine men are rejected. There is also an expectation for men to be hyper-masculine—

Answer 20

dominant, powerful, and callous toward women. The prescriptive nature of the male gender role has consequences for men and boys and can lead to negative outcomes such as drug abuse, low self-esteem, and sexual prejudice.

Question 21

Manhood is precarious: People believe that it is difficult to achieve but easy to lose, and men react negatively when their manhood is threatened. The precarious nature of manhood can result in

Answer 21

high levels of anxiety, which sometimes leads men to be aggressive and violent.

Question 22

Beliefs about gender identity are also linked to the gender belief system. Transgender people are often viewed negatively and are often incorrectly classified as gay or lesbian. However, gender identity—seeing oneself as male, female, somewhere in between, or not part of any gender category—is distinct from sexual orientation. Transgender people face

Answer 22

widespread discrimination, including harassment and violence. They also frequently experience microaggressions when people ask inappropriate questions about their body and/or refuse to treat transgender people as “real” members of the gender that they identify with by refusing to call them by their gender pronouns.

Question 23

Men’s attitudes toward transgender people are more negative than

Answer 23

women’s and greater anti-transgender prejudice is associated with anti-egalitarian, politically conservative, and authoritarian beliefs. Contact with transgender people, including media-related contact, can result in greater acceptance.

Question 24

Beliefs and attitudes about sexual orientation are also linked to the gender belief system. For example, stereotypes about gay men and lesbians include the belief that

Answer 24

they have the characteristics of the other gender; however, the sexual orientation hypothesis proposes that people are more likely to believe feminine men are gay than they are to believe that masculine women are lesbian.

Question 25

Heterosexual men hold more negative attitudes toward homosexuality than do heterosexual women, perhaps because male gender-role norms require them to

Answer 25

reject anything associated with femininity generally and gay men specifically. Women are not so clearly expected to reject either gay men or lesbians, perhaps because they already occupy a lower status role than men.

Question 26

Over time, people in some parts of the world have become more accepting of homosexuality. Nonetheless, people who are older, male, authoritarian, and politically conservative hold more negative attitudes, whereas people who personally know someone who is gay or lesbian tend to be more accepting. These same factors are related to negative attitudes toward

Answer 26

bisexual and transgender people. The little available research on stereotypes about bisexual individuals shows that they are seen as confused, promiscuous, and as having poor relationships. They are often stereotyped both by people who are heterosexual and by people who are lesbian or gay.

Question 27

Homosexuality can be a concealable stigma and many lesbian, gay, or bisexual people believe it is often better not to reveal their sexual orientation. Self-disclosure in the workplace is an important issue for

Answer 27

gay men and lesbians, as revealing one’s sexual orientation can lead to negative job evaluations or termination, regardless of performance. However, sexual minorities thrive in accepting workplaces.