Chapter 6: Vineyard Management

Question 1

List and describe the considerations that need to be made by a producer/grower when establishing a new vineyard

Answer 1

Environmental conditions - average rainfall, temperature, sunlight hours, fertility of soil, drainage all which help determine grape variety, planting density, training/trellising
Business considerations - proximity of vineyard to utility infrastructure, availability of a workforce, accessibility of a site for machinery, cost of land
Grape variety - must suit climatic conditions of preferred site, but must also be in demand. Legal restrictions exist in EU vineyards.

Question 2

Describe the steps of the planting/replanting cycle, and how a grower will typically manage this cycle across their vineyard area.

Answer 2

• Clear site of existing vegetation
• Test fertility of soil and adjust with fertilisers if nutrient deficiencies found
• Young vines (typically bought from a nursery) are planted by hand or machine
• Young vines then protected against animals by individual plastic sleeves
• Irrigation to help young vines establish themselves (if allowed by regional law)
• Vines are usually replaced between 30-50 years old, and after removing land is left fallow (unplanted) for >3y.

A grower will ensure that in this replanting/planting cycle, as little of their vineyard as possible is out of production at any one time.

Question 3

Name the two types of vine training

Answer 3

Head training

Cordon training

Question 4

Describe a vine that is head trained, and compatible pruning techniques.

Answer 4

A head trained vine has little permanent wood (some only have a trunk, some a few short arms of permanent wood growing from top of trunk). It can be spur-pruned or replacement cane-pruned.

Question 5

Describe a vine that is cordon trained, and compatible pruning techniques. What are the benefits and drawbacks of cordon training?

Answer 5

A trunk with one or more permanent horizontal arms (‘cordons’), but can be trained to big structures with four or more cordons. Can be spur-pruned.
Cordon-training takes longer to establish because of the greater amount of permanent wood (>1y/o wood).
However it is easier to mechanise in vineyard as permanent cordon is sturdy with shoots positioned along length.

Question 6

List pruning methods used in Winter, and the benefits of pruning.

Answer 6

Spur pruning
Replacement cane pruning

Winter pruning determines number and location of buds which will form shoots in growing season (recall that a bud contains all the structures that will become flowers, leaves, shoots in following year).
It also helps with canopy management, shapes vine and limits size (important alongside managing planting density).

Question 7

What is a spur? Describe the spur pruning method

Answer 7

Spurs are short sections of one-year-old wood that have been cut down to only 2 or 3 buds. The spurs are either distributed along a cordon of permanent wood (cordon trained) or around top of trunk (head trained)

Question 8

What is a cane? Describe the cane pruning method

Answer 8

A cane is a longer section of one-year-old wood with anything between 8-20 buds. Only one or two canes are retained and tied horizontally to the trellis for support. Most common on head-trained vines.
More complex than spur pruning, requires large skilled labour force to select suitable canes to train.
Also called Guyot training - one cane is retained in Single Guyot, two in Double Guyot.

Question 9

List pruning methods used in Summer, and the overall purpose of Summer pruning.

Answer 9

Trellising
Canopy management
Summer pruning is focused around canopy management: canopy is trimmed to restrict vegetative growth, and direct sugar production to the grape rather than to further growth of shoots and leaves. Can involve leaf stripping to optimise exposure of grape bunches to sunshine.

Question 10

What is a trellis?

Answer 10

A permanent structure of stakes and wires that are used to support any replacement canes and the vine’s annual growth.

Question 11

Describe the characteristics of a bush vine. What regions are best known for using this technique, and why? Where would you avoid this training?

Answer 11

A bush vine is head-trained and spur-pruned, and is untrellised i.e. shoots hang down often as far as the ground. This technique is unsuitable for mechanical harvesting.
This technique is best suited for hot, dry, sunny regions e.g.
-Southern Rhone in France: many Grenache vines are bush-trained low to the ground to benefit from additional warmth from stony soils to aid ripening, while also protecting the vines from harmful mistral winds.
-Barossa Valley in Australia
The extra shade provided by the leaves as grape bunches hang below the canopy helps protect grapes from sunburn.

AVOID bush vines in cool or wet regions, as the shade can impede ripening while lack of airflow can promote disease.

Question 12

What is a gobelet training system, and give an example of where it is used and why.

Answer 12

This is a technique used on untrellised bush vines, in cooler or wetter regions i.e. Beaujolais.
The shoots of bush vines are tied together at the tips to help expose bunches to air and sunlight.

Question 13

Describe the format of a trellised vineyard

Answer 13

Each row of vines requires a line of posts joined by horizontal wires, where vine’s canes and shoots are tied to trellis i.e. canopy management.

Question 14

List the benefits of a trellised vineyard

Answer 14

• Arrangement of young shoots can be used to control amount of sunlight that gets into the canopy: maximises exposure to sunlight in regions with limited sunlight, helping grapes ripen successfully. Note in regions with intense sunlight, a grower may choose not to tie shoots to a trellis to allow shading.
• Improves air circulation through leaves and grapes, reducing risk of fungal diseases from damp/stagnant air
• Aids mechanisation: machine harvesting and more effective spraying as leaves and grapes are well separated

Question 15

Describe a Vertical Shoot Positioning (VSP) system, what pruning systems it can be used with, and why it is beneficial, and how it can be adapted in different climates.

Answer 15

-Can be used with replacement cane- or spur-pruned vines (head-trained or cordon-trained).
Vine’s shoots are trained vertically and tied in place onto trellis, forming single narrow canopy.
Benefits: keeping shoots apart keeps canopy open, well aerated and shade free (in hot sunny regions VSP can be adapted to allow tops of shoots to flow over to create shade). This flopped over VSP system could be chosen over a bush vine because mechanical harvesting can still be used.

Question 16

Define planting density

Answer 16

Number of vines planted in a given area, typically expressed as the number of vines planted per hectare (area enclosed by a square with 100m sides). Can vary from as low as 1000 vines per hectare to 10,000 vines per hectare. Note that some countries use acres (1 acre = 0.4 hectares)

Question 17

What are the two most important sets of criteria a grape grower must consider when deciding on planting density?

Answer 17

Availability of nutrients and water

Question 18

Give an example where low planting density is beneficial, and why.

Answer 18

Where there is very limited water availability i.e. regions of low rainfall/limited access to irrigation.
Allows each vine’s roots to take up water from large volume of soil without competing against other vines

Question 19

Give an example where high planting density is beneficial, and why.

Answer 19

Where there are low levels of nutrients with sufficient rainfall i.e. vines can actually thrive in barely fertile soil as long as it has enough water. Reducing unchecked growth of green vegetation is important to prioritise fruit growth. High-density planting provides competition to restrict growth, alongside bud restriction over winter pruning.

Question 20

How does limiting buds in Winter pruning help regulate growth?

Answer 20

As the vine stores energy in the form of carbohydrates over winter, with too few buds each bud has access to too much energy and will grow vigorously. Too many buds means each will not have access to enough energy and will struggle to ripen its crop load.

Question 21

How best to manage planting and training in regions of high levels of nutrients and sufficient rainfall?

Answer 21

Common conditions in New World, e.g. NZ.
Using low-density planting isn’t typically enough, also need to use vines with multiple cordons or canes. Can produce good quality grapes at high yields

Question 22

Define yield

Answer 22

A measure of the amount of grapes produced, can be measured in terms of weight (Tonnes of grapes per hectare, or volume i.e. hectolitres of wine per hectare)

Question 23

How does a winemaker/grower control too-high yields? What are the drawbacks of these methods?

Answer 23

A winemaker can estimate yield from number of buds left on vine after winter pruning. Not totally accurate because frost damage, poor fruit set, and pests/disease can dramatically reduce the final figure.

Can remove immature grapes shortly after veraison i.e. ‘green harvesting’. Very risky - vine can compensate for loss by increasing size of retained grapes (can return yield to original size and dilute grape flavours)

Question 24

List the main pests of a vineyard

Answer 24

Phylloxera
Nematodes
Birds and mammals
Insects

Question 25

Describe the impact of nematodes and how to combat them

Answer 25

Microscopic worms that attack the roots of vines, interfering with water and nutrient uptake. Can also transmit vine viruses.
Prevention - sanitising soil before replanting and using resistant rootstocks

Question 26

Describe impact of birds and mammals and how to combat them

Answer 26

Can consume large volumes of grapes, and half-eaten/crushed grapes increases risk of fungal disease.
Combat with netting against birds, and protective fencing against mammals

Question 27

Describe impact of insects and how to combat them

Answer 27

Feed on grapes and leaves.

Combat with regular spraying of insecticides or integrated pest management (most sustainable)

Question 28

List types fungal diseases

Answer 28

Downy and powdery mildew

Grey rot

Question 29

Describe impact of downy and powdery mildew and how to combat it

Answer 29

Thrives in warm/humid environments, impacts green parts of vine (including grapes). Grapes lose their fruity flavours and gives wine a mouldy bitter taint.
Control via fungicide sprays, also canopy management - open vine canopy to improve airflow.

Question 30

Describe impact of grey rot and how to combat it

Answer 30

Botrytis cinerea - damp conditions, attacks grapes and taints flavours and leads to colour loss in black grapes. NB in certain conditions for certain white grapes may be beneficial to produce fine sweet wines i.e. NOBLE ROT
Control via fungicide sprays, also canopy management - open vine canopy to improve airflow.

Question 31

How do viruses impact vines?

Answer 31

Most don’t kill vine, but limit vine’s ability to function so reduce yield and quality. Highly contagious and persistent, spread via cuttings and nematodes
No cures. Only possible to eradicate by digging up vines and sanitising land.

Question 32

How do bacterial diseases impact vines?

Answer 32

Reduces grape quality and quantity, sometimes kill vines.
Spread by small insects called sharpshooters.
No treatments/cures - strict quarantine and interrupt lifecycle of sharpshooters. Dig up and sanitise land.

Question 33

List the characteristics of sustainable agriculture

Answer 33

Restricted use of man-made chemicals (by better understanding of lifecycles of pests)
Integrated pest management - letting some predators of certain pests in vineyard to control populations
Supporting biodiversity through range of plants (habitats for predators of pests, and provides nutrients for vines when mowed/ploughed into soil)

Question 34

List characteristics of organic agriculture

Answer 34

Very limited number of traditional treatments against pests and diseases, very small quantities
Requires accreditation from organic certification body for labelling wine as organic (Vineyard undergoes period of conversion working to organic standards)
Standards of accreditation vary slightly worldwide

Question 35

List characteristics of biodynamic agriculture

Answer 35

Based on work of Rudolf Steiner and Maria Thun
Incorporates philosophy and cosmology, growers adapt grape growing practice to coincide with cycles of planets, moon, stars.
Homeopathic remedies called ‘preparations’ are used to fertilise soil, treat diseases and ward off pests
Certification bodies exist for biodynamic agriculture

Question 36

Describe machine harvesting and benefits/drawbacks

Answer 36

Machine harvesters shake the trunk of the vine and collect the ripe berries as they fall off, leaving stalks behind.
Drawbacks:
-Not selective
-Can shake off other contaminants i.e. MOG (matter other than grapes)
-Can only be used on flat/slightly sloping land
-Suited only to grape varieties that are not easily damaged and come off stem easily
-Can’t be used for whole bunch wine styles (Beaujolais, Champagne)

Benefits:
-Fast speed of harvest, and can work through night (allows cool grapes to be brought to winery)

Question 37

Describe hand harvesting and benefits/drawbacks

Answer 37

Pickers cut off individual bunches of grapes with secateurs.
Drawbacks:
-Slower, more labour intensive = expensive

Benefits:

• Allows grape selection (rotten/unripe grapes can be left on vine) - essential for noble rot affected vines as this level varies between and within bunches.
• Less damage to grapes
• Retains grape stems - allows whole intact bunches which produce a very clean, pure juice when pressed in white winemaking and essential for whole bunch fermentations in red winemaking.
• Can be only option in steep vineyard slopes e.g. Douro (Portugal), Mosel (Germany), Northern Rhone (France)

Question 38

What are coulure and millerandage and why might they happen?

Answer 38

Coulure and millerandage occur when there is cold, cloudy, rainy weather during pollination.
Coulure: when more flowers than normal fail to fertilise during flowering and fruit set.
Millerandage: when grapes form without seeds and remain small during fruit set.

Question 39

Growth Cycle diagram: Describe 1,2,3,4 in terms of vine growth and vineyard practice

Answer 39

Bud burst. Occurs in Spring: March-April Northern Hem, September-Oct Southern Hem.
Start of growing season, usually once mean daily temp exceeds 10oC but actual temp depends on grape variety:
Chardonnay & Pinot Noir: early-budding (lower temp)
Cabernet Sauvignon: late-budding
Risks: Spring frosts
Vineyard practices: fungal/pest spraying starts (if practiced)
1 = vine after winter pruning
2,3,4 = bud burst

Question 40

Growth Cycle diagram: Describe 5,6,7,8 in terms of vine growth and vineyard practice

Answer 40

Early shoot and leaf growth: March-May in Northern Hem, September-November in Southern Hem
-Rapid growth of shoots until flowering, initiated by carbohydrate stores and continued by photosynthesis. Needs good supply of water and sufficient nutrients.
Vineyard practice: tying shoots to trellis

Flowering and inflorescence: May-June Northern Hem, November-Dec Southern Hem
-Require warmth, sunshine, little-no rain so that pollination is not disrupted and fruit set not reduced (risk of millerandage and coulure)
-Fruit set = flower starts to develop into grape
-After fruit set = unpollinated flowers drop off
Vineyard practice: continued spraying (if used)

5 = Early shoot growth
6 = inflorescence before flowering
7,8 = inflorescence flowering

Question 41

Growth Cycle diagram: Describe 9,10,11,12 in terms of vine growth and vineyard practice

Answer 41

Veraison and Berry Ripening: July-Sept Northern Hem, Jan-March in Southern Hem.

-6-8 weeks after fruit set where grapes start to grow
-Grapes feel hard, every variety is green
-Veraison = grapes start to ripen = colour change from green to red then purple, or green to translucent and golden
-Veraison to harvest = grapes swell, fill with water, sugar increases and acid decreases, colour pigment and flavour accumulates, tannins develop.
-Ideally want warm, sunny conditions with mild water stress
Vineyard management:
-summer pruning (if needed) to manage canopy/excess foliage
-green harvest if yield deemed too high/to improve grape quality
-spraying (if used)

9 = Fruit set
10 = immature grapes before veraison
11 = Black grapes during veraison
12. Vineyard in full canopy

Question 42

Growth Cycle diagram: Describe 13,14,15 in terms of vine growth and vineyard practice

Answer 42

Harvest: Sept-Oct in Northern Hem, March-April in Southern Hem

-Ideally dry (avoid grape dilution and rot spreading)
Vineyard management: spraying stopped early enough to avoid harmful chemical residues in wine.

13 = ripe black grapes
14 = ripe white grapes
15 = hand harvested white grapes

Question 43

Growth Cycle diagram: Describe 16 in terms of vine growth and vineyard practice

Answer 43

Winter Dormancy: December-March in Northern Hem, July-Sept in Southern Hem

• Cooler weather ends growing season
• Shoots become woody = canes
• Leaves fall, vine stores reserves of carbohydrates in roots
• Winter freeze can kill buds in continental climates, even vine itself.

Vineyard management:

• Pile earth around grafted section of vine to protect against extreme cold.
• Start winter pruning

16 = Vineyard before pruning in winter

Question 44

What is an ‘old vine’? List benefits and drawbacks of using ‘old vines’ to produce wine.

Answer 44

A vine from a well-established plant can be termed ‘old vine’ by an estate, but note that no legal definition actually exists. It is thought that these vines produce fruit of exceptional quality, typically with greater concentration or flavours.
The problem with vines is that grape yield decreases and disease risk increases with age, and although lower yield is responsible for greater concentration, a balance needs to be struck between profitability and quality.

Question 45

What vineyard resources are taken into account when using training, pruning, and trellising?

Answer 45

Sunlight, soil nutrients, water, temperature

Possibility of machinery access