chapter 6 Flashcards
what are Ekman’s universal emotions?
- proposed that certain basic emotions are universale (they have essentially the same meaning no matter where someone grows up in the world and that they correspond to predictable, hard-wired facial expressions)
- happiness
- sadness
- surprise
- fear
- disgust
- contempt
- anger
what system is associated with emotion?
the limbic system (with the amygdala and hypothalamus playing important roles)
what are the 3 components of emotion?
- cognitive
- physical
- behavioural
what is the cognitive component of emotion?
what’s going on in our heads when we feel a certain way
what is the physiological component of emotion?
refers to how emotions manifest physically in our body
what is the behavioural component of emotion?
refers to the way in which we behave when we feel a certain emotion (variable among humans)
what is the James-Lange theory of emotion?
the physiological response occurs immediately after the stimulus, causing the emotional response
(we see a bear, our heart starts racing, and then we perceive that physiological response as fear)
what is the Schachter-Singer theory of emotion?
we see the bear, have a physiological response, appraise that response in contect and then have a conscious emotion and/or behaviour
I see a strange man walking toward me.
My heart is racing and I am trembling.
My rapid heart rate and trembling are caused by fear.
I am frightened!
what is the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion?
proposes that after a stimulus, the physiological response and emotional response in the brain happen simultaneously and seperatly, and jointly lead to an emotional response
what is the Lazarus theory of emotion?
- pribileges a cognitive assessment of the entire situationwe first label the situation that we’re in as good or bad, and then experience a physiological response and a conscious emotion
what is an independent stressor?
- stressors outside of your control
what is a dependent stressor?
those that are impacted by our own behaviours and ro some extent are therefore within our own control
what is an avoidance avoidance conflict?
one where we have to choose between 2 bad options
what is an approach approach conflict?
involves choosing between 2 good options
what is an approach avoidance conflict
one where you’re dealing with a decision that has both upsides and downsides
what is a double approach avoidance conflict
one where you’re choosing between 2 options that each have upsides and downsides
what is primary stress appraisal?
refers to the process through which a person sees a certain event as a threat or a stressor
what is a secondary stress appraisal?
refers to a person’s assessment of his or her ability to deal with that stressor
what is eustress?
positive stress
- example: athlete playing a game
what is a neustress?
stressors that don’t have much of an impact on you one way or the other, or that you perceive as neutral or inconsequential
what is general adaptation syndrome?
the initial stress response to stress is alarm, a stage in which the sympathetic NS becomes activated to marshal the fight-or-flight response needed to deal with the acute stressor
as stress persists, the body shifts over to resistance, a stage mediated by the steroid hormone cortisol, which is responsible for the chronic stress response
eventually the body’s resources will be drained, resulting in exhaustion, at which point the body becomes more vulnerable to the long-term negative side effects of chronic stress
what is learned helplessness?
when someone has repeated exposure to stressors that one is unable to change or avoid and eventually give up trying to get rid of them
ex. animals in an enclosure get shocked when they try and escape so they stop trying to escape
what is encoding?
Encoding is the act of getting information into our memory system through automatic or effortful processing.
what processess aid encoding?
- priming (positive and negative priming refer to when priming affects the speed of processing. A positive prime speeds up processing, while a negative prime lowers the speed to slower than un-primed levels.)
what is the stroop task?
the task is to identify the colour that is used to write a word depicting another colour
J.A. Easterbrook hypothesis
predicted that high levels of arousal will lead to attention narrowing, defined as a decrease in the range of cues from the stimulus and its environment to which the organism is sensitive. According to this hypothesis, attention will be focused primarily on the arousing details (cues) of the stimulus, so that information central to the source of the emotional arousal will be encoded while peripheral details will not
what is the method of loci?
used as a way to encode information by mentally mapping it onto an imagined space
what happens after encoding memory?
we have to store it
what is sensory memory?
at any given moment, we’re taking in and temporariky storing a vast amount of information that will decay very fast (seconds) without rehearsal (a conscious decision to pay attention to or reinforce the memory)
what is long term memory?
scale of hours to years
- no limit on how much we can stpre
what is short-term memory?
describes our ability to store information on the scale of tens of seconds to minutes and has a relatively small capacity
7 plus or minus 2 rule whcih states that we can generally hold roughly 5-9 items in our short-term memory
what is working memory?
- focuses more on the cognitive and attentional processes that we use to perform mental operations on information we’re holding in our short-term memory
- draws on a capcity called the visuospatial sketchpad, which describes a buffer of sorts that is used to hold onto visual and spation information as it is processed by working memory
what is semantic memory/explicit and declarative memory?
Semantic memory refers to a portion of long-term memory that processes ideas and concepts that are not drawn from personal experience. Semantic memory includes things that are common knowledge, such as the names of colors, the sounds of letters, the capitals of countries and other basic facts acquired over a lifetime.
what is procedural memory/implicit memory?
Procedural memory is a part of the long-term memory that is responsible for knowing how to do things, also known as motor skills. As the name implies, procedural memory stores information on how to perform certain procedures, such as walking, talking and riding a bike.
what is episodic memory?
Episodic memory is a category of long-term memory that involves the recollection of specific events, situations, and experiences. Your memories of your first day of school, your first kiss, attending a friend’s birthday party, and your brother’s graduation are all examples of episodic memories.
what is a flashbulb memory?
memories of learning something so shocking or surprising that it creates a strong and seemingly very accurate memory of learning about the event–but not the event itself.
ex. 9/11
what is eidetic memory?
refers to the ability to remember a stimulus in great detail after a relatively short exposure
what is iconic memory?
refers to how a highly details visual image can remain in our perception for a brief period of time (a second or 2) after the stimulus itself has been removed or changed
what is prospective memory?
refers to memories related to plans to do something in the future
what is the concept of spreading activation?
suggests that when a concept is brought to mind, activation spreads across adjacent nodes of a conceptual network
ex. yellow bus can prime us to think about cateogires like yellow things, cars, schools, kids and these conceptual networks can be referred to as schemas (ways in which we organize our knowledge and perceptions about the world)
what is the phenomenon of source monitoring error
A source-monitoring error is a type of memory error where the source of a memory is incorrectly attributed to some specific recollected experience.
(ex. we actually heard the news from a friend but remember that we heard the news from a teacher)
what is retrieval?
the process of calling upon our memories and stored knowledge
what is recall
an active process
what is recognition?
a passive process
what does semantic activation do?
primes us to more quickly retrieve concepts that are adjacent to already-activated concepts
what is the primary effect
The primacy effect is the tendency to remember the first piece of information we encounter better than information presented later on.
what is the recency effect
The recency effect is the tendency to remember the most recently presented information best.
what is the serial position effect
Serial-position effect is the tendency of a person to recall the first and last items in a series best, and the middle items worst
what is the spacing effect
The spacing effect refers to the finding that long-term memory is enhanced when learning events are spaced apart in time, rather than massed in immediate succession
what is the dual coding effect
proposes that studying multiple modalities (ex. visual learning and text-based learning) is more effective than using a single modality because our brain codes different modalities seperately
what is the state dependent memory phenomenon?
State-dependent memory is a phenomenon where people are more likely to retrieve memories that were created in similar states of consciousness. For example, if you learned something while drunk, you will have a higher chance of remembering it if you are also drunk.
what is the misinformation effect
The misinformation effect occurs when a person’s recall of episodic memories becomes less accurate because of post-event information.
ex. if you learn something bad about someone you liked, you might recollect interactions with them that were more bad
what is reproductive memory?
a model in whcih we encode information and then reproduce it as needed
memory is reconstructive means?
we build our memories based on our perceptions of ourselves and others, information that we have about the context of events, and so on
what is the Ebbinghaus forgetting curve?
formalizes the insight that forgetting is a fact of life, but repeated rounds of learning causr the forgetting process to slow down and for more information to be consolidated into loner-term memory
what is proactive interference?
older memories inhibit the consolidation or retrieval of new memories
(ex. if you’re set in your ways about how to perform a certain task, those old memories might get in the way of learning how to do things in a different way)
what is retroactive interference?
new memories or knowledge interfere with older knwoledge
(ex. you become skilled at playing the newest version of a video game with new controls and interface so it might be difficult to play the old version even though you were once good at it)
what is amnesia?
refers to more generalized processes of memory loss: not losing isolated bits of information, but losing memories of entire experiences, periods of time, and/or broad swaths of information
what is retrograde amnesia?
the inability to describe previous events
what is anterograde amnesia?
refers to the inability to form new memories
what is Korsakoff’s syndrome?
distinct disease that causes anterograde and retrograde amnesia but also has a tendency for confabulation (elaborate fictional stories)
caused by vitamin B1 deficiency
the mechanism underlying memory and learning is thought to be the?
development and evolution of synaptic connections, and even the pruning ot loss of those connections
what is neuroplasticity?
the ability of the brain to rewire itself in response to learning new information or to compensate for injury or disease
what is long term potentiation?
the strengthening and reinforcement of synaptic connections
what is classical conditioning?
- Ivan Pavlov
- transforms an unconditioned response (reflex) into a conditioned response
- acquisition (used to refer to successful conditioning)
- extinction occurs when they stop salivating in response to the metronome when meat isn’t provided with it leading to habituation (the fact that repeated stimuli elecit a diminished response over time)
- when an intervening stimulus causes you to become re-sensitized to the original stimulus is called deshabituation
what is spontaneous recovery?
when the conditioned response can re-emerge without requiring a separate conditioning process
- the conditioned response is normally less strong (amplified as more cycles of extinction and recovery repeat)
what is stimulus generalization?
when a conditioned stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulis can also elecit a conditioned response
what is stimulus discrimination?
responding selectively to only one or a very limited range of stimuli
what is the defining purpose of classical conditioning?
to shift an unconditioned response to a conditional response, and that the learner has not learned to perform some specific behaviour to get a reward
rewards are known as what in operant conditioning?
reinforcers
punishment is defined as?
anything that decreases behaviour
operant conditioning is?
what is positive reinforcement?
administering a pleasant stimulus immediately after a behaviour we like to see increase
(ex. giving a pet a treat as it exhibits desired behaviour)
what is positive punishment?
qdministering an aversive stimulus, or adding anything that decreases behaviour
(ex. if children bite their nails, their nails would be coated with a gross tasting material so that biting their finger nails would be gross to them)
if behaviour didn’t decrease then they were not punished
what is negative punishment?
means removing a pleasant stimulus in order to encourage a behaviour
(ex. closing hand on treat from a puppy when a puppy tries to nip at your hand)
what is negative reinforcement?
taking away a stimulus in order to encourgae a behaviour
(ex. running inside from the rain because the averse stimulus is the rain and encourages running which is a behaviour)
what is escape learning?
involves a behaviour aimed to terminate an aversive or unpleasant stimulus
what is avoidance learning?
refers to a behaviour that is intended to prevent an aversive stimulus from ever even happening
what is a schedule of reinforcement?
tweaks the regularity with which we provude rewards
what is continuous reinforcement?
provides reinforcement each time the target behaviour is performed
what is partial reinforcement?
the response is reinforced only part of the time ex. can be structured according to ratios, how many instances of the behaviour have occured, or on time intervals
what is a token economy?
A token economy is a system of contingency management based on the systematic reinforcement of target behavior. The reinforcers are symbols or tokens that can be exchanged for other reinforcers.
what is shaping?
Shaping is using a series of successive reinforcement steps on a subject to get the subject progressively closer and closer to exhibit a target behavior. … For example; if a child responds well to praise, then it can be used as positive reinforcement for exhibiting a desired behavior, such as tidying away their toys
what is latent learning?
Latent learning is the subconscious retention of information without reinforcement or motivation. In latent learning, one changes behavior only when there is sufficient motivation later than when they subconsciously retained the information
what is instinctive drift
Instinctual drift is the tendency of some trained animals to revert back to instinctualbehaviors. In other words, they will behave in accordance with evolutionary contingencies, as opposed to the operant contingencies of their training.
What is observational learning and who created it using what?
Alfred Bandura and bobo dolls
kids observed adults playing with Bobo dolls and if the adults acted aggressivly, the children were more likely to also play more aggressivly with the bobo dolls
what is imitation?
the process of copying the behavior of another person, group, or object, intentionally or unintentionally. It is a basic form of learning that accounts for many human skills, gestures, interests, attitudes, role behaviors, social customs, and verbal expressions
what are mirror neurons?
Mirror neurons show activity both when an individual performs a particular action, as well as when they observe another person performing the same action. As such, they are thought to play a significant role in learning and intention understanding, speech and language evolution, emotional intelligence and empathy, and could be linked to certain neuropsychological disorders.
partial reinforcement schedules:
