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MCAT psych/soc > chapter 2 > Flashcards

chapter 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

biological approach to behaviour

A

refers to how genes, hormones, and neurotransmitters shape an organisms response to environmental stimuli or its own internal needs

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2
Q

psychological approaches

A

involve thinking about the human mind as a whole and talk about things like emotions, attitudes, memories, cognition, personality

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3
Q

sociological approaches

A

deals with extraoridinarily complicated systems

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4
Q

instincts

A

behaviours shaped by genetics

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5
Q

cultural learning

A

Cultural learning is the way a group of people or animals within a society or culture tend to learn and pass on information.

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6
Q

environmental factors

A

all in your environment that shapes a person’s development including access to food, stress, and money

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7
Q

nature vs nurture debate

A

how much is a trait determined by genes alone

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8
Q

heritability of 1

A

means that all variation in a trait is explained through pure genetics

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9
Q

heritability of 0

A

means that all variation in a trait can be explained through environmental factors or chance

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10
Q

most psychological traits have been estimated to have a heritability of

A

0.3-0.6 which means its both genetic and environmental

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11
Q

which disease has a higher heritability

A

schizophrenia (0.8)

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12
Q

what can we use to treat diseases

A

medications, gene therapy, and environmental interventions

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13
Q

environment influences behaviour through?

A

gene expression

genes can be expressed or transcribed at a greater or lesser rate depending on the needs of the organism

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14
Q

epigenetics

A

changes to the genome that do not involve changing the actual nucleotide content

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15
Q

methylation

A

adding a methyl group to nucleotides, generally to cytosine which has the effect of silencing DNA or shutting down the expression of specific genes

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16
Q

3 stages of pregnancy

A

first trimester- when major structures of the fetus are formed

second trimester- when the detials get filled in and the fetus grows

third trimester- involves growing and finalizing preparations for the outside world

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17
Q

fetus is susceptible to what factors?

A

environmental because the placenta enables 2 way communication between mother and fetus

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18
Q

how many reflexes do babies have that disappear with time

A

5

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19
Q

palmar grasp reflex

A

gently stroke an infants palm and the baby will grab onto your finger

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20
Q

rooting reflex

A

describes how a baby will search for an object that brushes against its mouth or cheek

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21
Q

sucking reflex

A

describes how a baby will automatically start making sucking motions when something grazes the top of its mouth

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22
Q

Moro reflex

A

startle reflex that occurs in response to sudden movement or loud sounds in which a baby extends its arms and legs, pulls them back in, throws its head back, and cries

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23
Q

Babinski reflex

A

when the bottom of a baby’s foot is stroked, the big toe bends up and the other toes fan out whereas in ehalthy adults the toes curl downward

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24
Q

when a baby shows anxiety when interacting with strangers at what month

A

7 or 8 months

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25
Q

language development blossoms at what age

A

2

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26
Q

considerable what exists in the specific timing of milestones across children

A

variation

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27
Q

critical period

A

experiences, either positive or negative, in early childhood can imprint themselves on a person, with implications that extend throughout the lifetime

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28
Q

the period of early childhood is crucial for what

A

language

needed at early life or else extreme difficulty learning it later in life

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29
Q

adolescence

A

transition from childhood to adulthood

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30
Q

what occurs during adolescence

A

puberty and the development of secondary sex characteristics

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31
Q

adulthood

A

prefontal cortex keeps developing until about 25

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32
Q

aging

A

eventual degredation of telomeres

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33
Q

endocrine system

A

network of organs distributed throughout the body that secrete signalling molecules called hormones into the bloodstream

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34
Q

direct hormones

A

cause their target cells to make direct changes in some physiological function

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35
Q

tropic hormones

A

cause other hormones to be released

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36
Q

hypothalamus

A

converts input from the nervous system into endocrine signals

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37
Q

what hormones do the hypothalamus release

A
  • gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
  • corticotropin-releasing-factor (CRF)
  • thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)
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38
Q

anterior pituitary gland

A

located directly below the hypothalamus and receives hypothalamic input from the hypophyseal portal system (blood vessels)

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39
Q

what hormones do the anterior pituitary release?

A
  • leutinizing hormone (LH)
  • follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
  • adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
  • thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
  • prolactin
  • endorphins
  • growth hormone
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40
Q

posterior pituitary gland

A

receives input from the hypothalamus from neurons and is composed of neurons itslef

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41
Q

what does the posterior pituitary secrete

A
  • antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
  • oxytocin
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42
Q

thyroid and parathyroid glands produce which hormone and what are its effects

A

small organs located in the throat that release thyroid hormone whcih affects metabolism and influences behaviour

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43
Q

adrenal glands

A

2 small glands located on top of the kidneys are divided into 2 distinct portions

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44
Q

adrenal cortex secretes?

A

cortisol which mediates the stress response

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45
Q

adrenal medulla secretes?

A

epinepherine and noepinepherine which are involved in the acute stress response

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46
Q

ovaries and testes secrete what

A

ovaries secrete estrogen and testes secrete testosterone

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47
Q

effects of estrogen and testosterone

A
  • both help coordinate reproductive processes and orchestrate the myraid changes that happen during puberty as well as the maintenance of secondary sex characteristics
  • help promote libido
  • testosterone is also associated with changes in social behaviour
48
Q

effects of oxytocin “cuddle hormone”

A
  • promoting uterine contractions during labor
  • effects on bonding, affection and trust
  • antidepressant properties
49
Q

prolactins effects

A
  • induces lactation for breastfeeding
  • modulates the stress response, anxiety, and depression (SAD)
  • dysregulation of prolactin leads to postpartum depression
50
Q

effects of melatonin

A
  • produced by the pineal gland in the brain that regulates wakefulness
  • though to induce sleep
51
Q

effects of leptin, ghrelin, and neuropeptide Y

A
  • leptin reduces hunger and tells the body to stop eating and expands energy
    • released by adipose tissue
  • ghrelin promotes hunger and released by cells in the GI tract when stomach is empty
  • neuropeptide Y stimulates appetite to increase food intake
52
Q

effects of epinepherine and norepinepherine

A
  • responsible for the acute stress response “fight or flight”
  • also a neurotransmitter
53
Q

effects of cortisol

A
  • released during chronic stress response
  • increases blood sugar levels and a prime candidate as a biological basis for the various psychological effects of chronic stress
54
Q

effects of thyroid hormone

A
  • promoting metabolism
  • needed for proper neurological development
55
Q

neurons and their structure

A

key functional cells of the nervoys system

the cell body (soma) has projections known as dendrites that receive input from other nerves or other specialized sense organs and then if an action potential is fired, it travels down the axon and at the end of an axon is the axon terminal where the neurotransmitters get released into the synapse

56
Q

electric potential difference at rest is?

A

-70mV

57
Q

depolarize

A

decrease the electric potential (-55mV)

58
Q

reflex arcs

A

simple neural pathways that control reflexes

59
Q

sensory neurons

A

carry information about stimuli to the central nervous system for processing

60
Q

afferent neurons

A

neurons that go towards the CNS

61
Q

motor neurons

A

carry signals to react from the CNS to the target cell

62
Q

efferent neurons

A

carry signals from the CNS to target organs and elecit the effects

63
Q

SAME

A

sensory afferent

motot efferent

64
Q

excitatory neuron

A

when a neurotranmitter binds receptors on a neuron and has the effect of depolarizing that neural membrane by making the membrane potential less negative and makes it easier for another signal to come in and push the neuron over its depolarization threshold

65
Q

inhibitory neuron

A

when a neurotransmitter makes the membrane potential difference even larger (-80mV) causing it to become hyperpolarized and making it harder for other excitatory stimuli to depolarize the neuron enough to elicit an action potential

66
Q

neurons bind to…

A

specific receptors that cause ion channels to open up which in turn allow certain ions to flow in ways that either reduce or increase the potential difference

67
Q

acetylcholine

A
  • a key neurotransmitter
  • activates muscle contraction at the neuromuscular junction
  • also communicates signals between the CNS and the ANS
  • within the ANS, it is also used to send signals from neurons to the PNS to their target tissues
  • communication
68
Q

glutamate

A
  • key neurotransmitter that is an excitatory neurotransmitter
  • depolarizes postsynaptic neurons pushing them closer to the action potential threshold
69
Q

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

A
  • key neurotransmitter that is inhibitory so it hyperpolarizes posttynaptic neurons, pushing them further away from the action potential threshold
70
Q

dopamine

A
  • key neurotransmitter that is involved in the reward pathways (addiction)
  • mediating certain motor functions
    • loss in substantia nigra = Parkinsons disease
71
Q

serotonin

A
  • regulates mood, appetite, and sleep
  • regulates intestinal movement in the GI tract
  • role in depression (keep serotonin in synapse longer)
72
Q

endorphins

A
  • suppress pain and can produce euphoric response
  • function similarly to opioids
73
Q

norepinepherine, epinepherine and adrenaline

A
  • norepinepherine is the main enurotransmitter involved in the acute stress response
  • other 2 are closely related and have similar physiological effects
74
Q

agonists

A
  • a compound that activates a certain receptor, causing some kind of responses
  • certain agonists do not evoke as strong of an effect as the original substance (partial agonists)
75
Q

antagonist

A
  • bind to a receptor but do not activate it or cause a response
  • they prevent the receptor from being bound by an agonist; stops a neurotransmitter or drug from being able to exert its effects on that recepor
76
Q

peripheral nervous system

A
  • includes nerves that shuttle sensory information from body tissues to the CNS for processing, as well as the nerves that extend out from the CNS and send motor impulses
77
Q

somatic nervous system

A
  • carries out voluntary activities so it contains the efferent (motor) neurons and the afferent (sensory) neurons
78
Q

autonomic nervous system

A
  • responsible for unconscious activities “automatic”
  • divided into the parasympathetic and sympathetic NS (act antagonistically on each other)
79
Q

sympathetic NS

A
  • responsible for the “fight or flight” to acute stress response
  • dilates pupils
  • inhibits saliva production
  • raises heart rate
  • dilates bronchioles
  • inhibits activity of digestive organs
  • stimulates the adrenal medulla to release epinepherine and norepinepherine
  • relaxes urinary bladder
  • stimulates orgasm
80
Q

parasympathetic nervous system

A
  • responsible for the rest-and-digest response
  • constricts pupils
  • increases saliva production
  • reduces the heart rate
  • constricts bronchia
  • stimulates activity of the digestive organs
  • constricts the urinary bladder
  • stimulates physiological arousal
81
Q

enteric nervous system

A
  • third branch of the ANS that is a seperate system of nerves that regulates the activity of the gut
  • can work independently of the para and sympathetic nervous systems but can get some input from them
82
Q

central nervous system

A
  • brain and the spinal cord
  • decides what to do
83
Q

brain can be divided into 3 portions

A
  1. hindbrain
  2. midbrain
  3. forebrain
84
Q

cerebellum

A
  • part of the hindbrain
  • makes coordinated movements happen
  • damage leads to difficulty with balance, gait and coordinated tasks
85
Q

medulla oblongata

A
  • part of the hindbrain
  • extend up from the spinal cord
  • controls autonomic functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure
86
Q

pons

A
  • part of the hindbrain
  • extends continuously up from the spinal cord
  • relay station through which signals are transmitted between the cerebellum, medulla, and the rest of the brain
  • contains clusters of neurons that deal with functions such as sleep, respiration, swallowing, taste, bladder control and balance
87
Q

inferior and superior colliculi

A
  • located in the midbrain
  • helps process auditory and visual input
88
Q

substantia nigra

A
  • located in the midbrain
  • contains neurons that communicate using dopamine to help coordinate voluntary movements
89
Q

brain stem

A
  • composed of the midbrain, medulla oblongata, and pons
  • forms physical support for the brain
  • also contains the reticular activating system (RAS) which modulates arousal and alertness
90
Q

forebrain

A
  • contains many structures that are important for understanding behaviour
  • divided into the diencephalon and the telencephalon
91
Q

diencephalon

A
  • one division of the forebrain
  • gives rise to the thalamus, hypothalamusm pineal gland and posterior pituitary gland
92
Q

thalamus

A
  • relays sensory and motor neuron signals and regulates sleep and alertness
93
Q

telencephalon

A
  • second division of the forebrain
  • gives rise to the cerebrum
94
Q

cerebrum

A
  • largest structure of the brain
  • divided into the cerebral cortex and subcortical structures
95
Q

cortex

A
  • the thin, outer layer of the brain that is divded into right and left hemisphere
96
Q

subcortical structures

A

include areas such as

  • olfactory bulb (detects odors)
  • the hippocampus ( consolidates short-term memory to long-term)
  • basal ganglia (eye and other voluntary movements and procedural and habitual learning)
97
Q

lymbic system

A
  • olfactory bulb
  • hypothalamus
  • hippocampus
  • basal ganglia
  • amygdala (episodic memory, attention and emotion)
  • nucleus accumbens (involved in reward, motivation and learning) - addiction
98
Q

cerebral cortex divided into how many lobes

A

4

99
Q

frontal lobe

A

involved in voluntary movement, memory processing, planning, motivation, and attention

100
Q

parietal lobe

A
  • involved in sensory processing, with the exception of vision
101
Q

occipital lobe

A
  • involved in processing vision
102
Q

temporal lobe

A
  • involved in making visual memories, in attaching meaning to information and language
103
Q

Wernicke’s area

A
  • part of the temporal lobe
  • involved in langauge comprehension
104
Q

Brocca’s area

A
  • part of the frontal lobe
  • involved in language production (speaking)
105
Q

Brocca’s area and Wernicke’s area are on which hemisphere?

A

the left hemisphere

106
Q

lateralization

A
  • tendency for the left and right hemipsheres of teh brain to specialize in different functions
  • right-handed = left brain dominance (vice versa)
107
Q

spinal cord

A
  • part of the CNS
  • functions as the link between the CNS and PNS
  • contains bundles of sensory and motor neurons
108
Q

brain and spinal cord are protected by?

A
  • cerebrospinal fluid
  • meninges
  • bones (skull and vertebrae)
109
Q

vertebrae

A
  • has a hole in the middle for the spinal cord to run through
  • front face - anterior/ventral- efferent nerves run through
  • back face - posterior/dorsal- afferent nerves run through
110
Q

SAME DAVE

A

sensory afferent

motor efferent

dorsal afferent

ventral efferent

111
Q

division of the spine

A
  • Cervical (C1-C7)
  • thoracic (T1-T12)
  • lumbar (L1-L5)
  • sacrum (S1-S5) fuse in early adult hood
  • coccyx/tailbone
112
Q

dermatomes

A

areas of the skin that are innervated by the branches of specific nerves, corresponding to entrance into the spinal column at the hight of specifc vertebrae (doctors to predict injury location)

113
Q

electroencephalograms (EEGs)

A
  • measure brain activity through electrodes placed on the scalp
  • different patterns of activity, for instance, correspond to different stages of sleep
  • can be measured down to the level of individual neurons
114
Q

computed tomography (CT scan)

A
115
Q

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

A
  • uses storng magnetic fields to image structures within the body
  • more expensive and more time consuming
  • no ionizing radiation
  • good for static images
  • better for imaging soft structures
116
Q

Positron emission tomography (PET scans)

A
  • radiolabels glucose (FDG) which emits positrons as it decays
  • the detector shows where this decay occurs
  • the areas with more decay are those where more glucose is being metabolized which corresponds to more intense neural activity
  • used for diagnosing diseases such as tumors, strokes, and dementia
  • analyzes changes associated with various physiological conditions
117
Q

functional MRI (fMRI)

A
  • relies on differences in magnetic properties between oxygenated hemoglobin, which is predominant in arterial blood, and deoxygenated hemoglobin which is predominant in venous blood to allow the visualization of blood flow
  • this allows us to zoom in even closer and measure brain activity, either to get a snapshot of the brain or to observe changes as subjects perform various tasks

MCAT psych/soc (12 decks)

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