Chapter 5: Language

Question 1

Rules that govern the meaning of language, as opposed to its structure

Answer 1

Semantic rules

Semantic misunderstandings arise when people assign different meanings to the same words or use different words to describe the same thing

Question 2

Words, word orders, phrases, or expressions that have more than one commonly accepted definition

Answer 2

Equivocal language

More than one commonly accepted definition: a tube could refer to a test tube, a tube of toothpaste, or a TV

Word orders:
Newspaper headline – family catches fire just in time

Question 3

Words that gain their meaning through comparison

Answer 3

Relative words

For example, whether or not you attend a large or small school depends on what others are like. Relative words such as fast, slow, smart, stupid, short, or long can only be defined through comparison

Question 4

The tendency to view people or relationships as unchanging

Answer 4

Static evaluation

Instead of labelling someone as permanently nervous, it’s more accurate to indicate the situations in which the behaviour occurs

Question 5

Language that is vague and unclear

Answer 5

Abstract language

Question 6

Language that refers to specific things that people do or say

Answer 6

Behavioural language

Question 7

A range of more to less abstract terms describing an event or object

Answer 7

Abstraction ladder

Choosing a style that is somewhere between abstract and behavioral. The ladders bottom-rung description is concrete and behavioral, and thus is probably clearer than the top-rung’s abstract injunction.

We often use higher-level abstractions as a verbal shorthand. For instance, we say, “thanks for helping,“ instead of using more specific language, such as, “thanks for washing the dishes, vacuuming the rug, and making the bed”.

Highly abstract language can also lead to blanket judgements and stereotyping – these kind of expressions can cause people to think in generalities, ignoring uniqueness. “Marriage counsellors are worthless“

Question 8

Rules that govern the way symbols can be arranged, as opposed to the meanings of those symbols

Answer 8

Syntactic rules

Yoda from Star Wars: “your father he is“

Question 9

Linguistic rules that help communicators understand how messages may be used and interpreted in a given context

Answer 9

Pragmatic rules

Denotative refers to the dictionary meaning of a word; connotative refers to what a particular word or phrase means to you

They are typically unstated

A boss saying “you look nice today“ could have several interpretations: a simple complement, a come on, or a suggestion that she didn’t normally look nice.

Question 10

A language style in which speakers defer to listeners by using hedges, hesitations, intensifiers, polite forms, tag questions, and disclaimers

Answer 10

Deferential language

Question 11

Give an example of a hedge as a type of deferential language

Answer 11

“I’m kind of disappointed“ “I think we should“ “I guess I’d like to“

kinda, should, guess

Less direct or vague words

Question 12

Give an example of hesitations in deferential language

Answer 12

“Uh, can I have a minute of your time?“

“Well, we could try this idea“

Uh, well, er

Pauses

Question 13

Give an example of intensifiers in deferential language

Answer 13

“I’m really glad to see you”“I’m not very hungry“

Really, very

Add emphasis

Question 14

Give an example of polite forms in deferential language

Answer 14

“Excuse me, sir“

Sir, ma’am

Question 15

Give an example of tag questions in deferential language

Answer 15

“It’s about time we got started, isn’t it?“ “Don’t you think we should give it another try?“

Isn’t it, don’t you think

These insert and interrogative question into a declarative message

Question 16

Give an example of disclaimers in deferential language

Answer 16

“I probably shouldn’t say this, but“ “I’m not really sure, but“

Remove responsibility for the message

Question 17

Conclusions that are arrived at from an interpretation of evidence

Answer 17

Inferences

Question 18

What are two types of disruptive language or linguistic habits that can cause disagreements?

Answer 18

Fact-opinion confusion – occurs when inferences, or assumptions, are presented as facts. Inferences are conclusions based on the speakers beliefs while facts, on the other hand, can be verified as true or false.
Example: fact – you forgot my birthday
Opinion – you don’t care about me
Better approach is to use perception checking

Emotive language – appears to describe something but really announces the speakers positive or negative attitude toward it. Can also be expressed nonverbally, for example through facial expressions, vocal expressions, and gestures
For example:
If you approve you say thrifty, if you disapprove you say cheap
If you approve you say cautious, if you disapprove you say cowardly
To avoid arguments, it’s better to describe the person, thing, or idea in neutral terms and to label your opinions as such- instead of saying “quit making sexist remarks“ say “I really don’t like it when you call us girls instead of women“

Question 19

Language that conveys the speakers attitude rather than simply offering an objective description

Answer 19

Emotive language

Question 20

Name five types of statements or language that reflects whether the speaker is willing to take responsibility for their beliefs and feelings. The language of responsibility

Answer 20

“It” statements

“But“ statements

Questions

“I“ and “you“ language

“We“ language

Question 21

The language of responsibility. Statements that replace the personal pronoun I with a less immediate word it, often with the effect of reducing the speakers acceptance of responsibility for the statements

Answer 21

“It“ statements

And “it bothers me when you’re late“ instead of “I’m worried when you’re late“

“I“ language clearly identifies the speaker as the source of a message. Communicators who use “it”statements attribute ownership to some unidentified source. Avoids taking a position

Question 22

A statement that describes the speakers reaction to another person‘s behaviour without making judgements about the behaviours worth

Answer 22

“I“ language

“I am bored in the class“

Question 23

The language of responsibility. Statements in which the word but cancels out the expression that preceded it

Answer 23

“But“ statements

“You’re really a great person, but I think we should stop seeing each other”“you’ve done good work for us, what we’re going to have to let you go“

This approach can be a face-saving strategy but when the goal is to be absolutely clear, it’s better to just state the central idea without the distraction of the “but“ statement

Question 24

The language of responsibility. Some of these are sincere requests for information, while others are just a way to avoid making a declaration. Indirect ________ can be a tactful way to approach a difficult topic, but when used unnecessarily, it can be a way to avoid saying what you mean

Answer 24

Questions

“How many textbooks are assigned in that class?“ May hide the statement “I’m afraid to get into a class with too much reading“

“Are you doing anything tonight?“ Can be a less risky way of saying “I want to go out with you tonight”

Question 25

A statement that expresses or implies a judgement of the other person

Answer 25

“You“ language

Question 26

The language of responsibility. The difference between using this type of language which is a way to take responsibility for what you say, and this other type of language which judges the other person.

Answer 26

“I“ and “you“ language

You language arouses defensiveness in others. The less provocative and more accurate way to express a complaint is with “I“ language which shows that speakers take responsibility for the gripe by describing their reaction to behaviour rather than making any judgements about it’s worth

Question 27

To make a complete “I“ statement, you must have four parts and they can appear in any order. They describe:

Answer 27

1. The other person‘s behaviour
2. Your interpretation
3. Your feelings
4. The consequences the others behaviour has for you

Example:
I get embarrassed (feeling) when you talk about my bad grades in front of our friends (Behavior). I’m afraid they’ll think I’m stupid (interpretation). That’s why I got so worked up last night (consequence)

Question 28

The language of responsibility. A statement that implies that the issue is the concern and responsibility of both the sender and receiver of a message

Answer 28

“We“ language

“We need to figure out a budget that doesn’t bankrupt us“

“We“ language builds a constructive climate, a kind of “we are in this together“ orientation that reflects the transactional nature of communication. It also signals closeness, commonality, and cohesiveness with others

Question 29

Describe gender and language

Answer 29

Research shows that while there are some major differences, many differences are not so large. Overall, females and males are more similar than different.

Reasons for communicating: men tend to make their conversation more enjoyable by telling jokes and using good-natured teasing. Women don’t enjoy teasing, their discussions commonly involve feelings, relationships, and personal problems

Conversational style: both speak about the same number of words per day. But in mixed-sex conversations, women ask more questions, while men interact more and are more likely to use judgemental adjectives such as “reading can be a drag“, directives such as “think of some more“, and “I“ references “I have a lot to do“. Women typically use deferential language and men use non-deferential language. May have to do with the fact that women tend to want to build and maintain relationships because of gender roles

Question 30

Describe three problems associated with gender and the English language

Answer 30

The generic pronoun – this problem refers to the use of he, his, and himself to refer to both men and women.

Maleness as standard – in the English language, maleness is set up as the standard. For example, a show titled women explorers would simply be titled explorers not male explorers. Other examples include lady doctor, female lawyer, or woman minister
Such language sends a message that it’s odd when women hold such positions when in fact, a large percentage of medical students in Canada are women.

Man-linked language – this type of language refers only to men and essentially excludes women. For example, mailman, fireman, policeman, weatherman. Such language perpetuates the myth that these positions are more suited to men than to women. Other words exclude women such as mankind, man-made, self-made man

Question 31

Cultures that use language primarily to express thoughts, feelings, and ideas as clearly and logically as possible

Answer 31

Low-context cultures

Low-context communicators look for the meaning of a statement in the words spoken. For example north America or Canada

Question 32

Cultures that avoid direct use of language, relying instead on the context of a message to convey meaning

Answer 32

High-context cultures

Use language to maintain social harmony. Context includes the speakers nonverbal behaviors, the relationships history, and the general social rules that govern the interaction. Most Asian and Middle Eastern cultures

Question 33

Language styles differ between cultures. They can vary in terms of _______ such as the more rich and expressive style of Arabic speakers Who make strong assertions and exaggerations, and _______, where silence is valued as it is in many first Nations cultures

Answer 33

Elaboration and succinctness

Question 34

Language styles differ between cultures. In terms of their formality and ________.

Answer 34

Informality

Question 35

The notion that the worldview of a culture is shaped and reflected by the language its members speak

Answer 35

Linguistic relativism

Example, the notion that the Inuit have many different words for snow. It’s because basic survival in the Arctic led the Inuit to make distinctions that would be unimportant to residents of warmer environments.

Another way we see linguistic relativism is the fact that some languages contain terms that have no English equivalent

Question 36

This hypothesis suggests that the language we speak affects how we interact with the world around us

Answer 36

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

The best known declaration of linguistic relativism. For example, Whorf observed that the language spoken by Hopi native Americans represents a view of reality that is dramatically different from the more familiar tongues. They make no distinction between nouns and verbs because they see the world as a constant process, whereas English nouns characterize people or objects as being fixed.