Chapter 3: Perception Flashcards
The process whereby we assign meaning to the world around us
Perception
What are the four steps in the perception process?
Selection, organization, interpretation, and negotiation
The first stage in the perception process, in which some data are chosen to attend to and others to ignore
Selection
What factors make some messages more noticeable than others? (4)
Stimuli that are more intense- for example, louder, larger, or brighter
Repetitious stimuli
Contrast or change
Motives – for example, if you’re late you’ll notice clocks around you or hungry you’ll spot restaurants
The second stage in the perception process that involves arranging data in a meaningful way
Organization
We make sense of stimuli by noticing data that stand out as a figure against a less striking ground - this is the principle of figure-ground organization
Cognitive frameworks that allow individuals to organize perceptual data that they have selected from the environment. These include physical, role, interaction, psychological, and membership constructs
Perceptual schemata
Part of the perception process organization
This construct of perceptual schemata allow us to classify people according to their appearance – for example, male or female, attractive or sloppy, big or small, young or old
Physical constructs
This construct of perceptual schemata used social position to organize data – such as student, lawyer, husband
Role constructs
This construct of perceptual schemata focuses on social behaviour to organize perceptual data – for example, friendly, intense, helpful
Interaction constructs
This construct of perceptual schemata organizes people according to their apparent personalities – such as curious, nervous, insecure
Psychological constructs
This construct of perceptual schemata help us identify others according to the group or groups they belong to – union rep, clergy, healthcare worker
Membership constructs
In perceptual process, Organization, we use this organizing scheme to–categorize individuals according to a set of characteristics assumed to belong to all members of a group
Making generalizations and predictions about members of the group who fit the categories we use
Stereotyping
In perceptual process, Organization, we use this organizing scheme – the process of determining the causal order of events
Punctuation
How actions are interpreted depends on when the interpreter thinks they occurred
The third step of the perception process – the process of attaching meaning to sense data; synonymous with decode
Interpretation
In the interpretation stage of the perception process, what factors affect how we interpret data? (8)
Degree of involvement with the other person- for example, we sometimes view people with whom we have or seek a relationship more favourably than others
Personal experience- what meaning have similar events held?
Assumptions about human behaviour – what we believe affects how we interpret the behaviour
Expectations – anticipation shapes interpretations
Knowledge – if you know something about a friend, you’ll interpret their behaviour differently
Self-concept – for example, the world seems very different when you’re feeling insecure. The way we feel about ourselves strongly influences how we interpret others’ behaviour
Relational satisfaction – a behaviour that seems positive when you’re happy with a partner might seem completely different when you’re not
The fourth stage in the perception process – what occurs between and among people as they influence one another’s perceptions and try to achieve a shared perspective
Negotiation
The stories we use to describe our personal worlds
Narratives
Part of the negotiation process in the perception process.
When our narratives clash, we can either hang onto our own point of view or negotiate a shared narrative that creates some common ground. Shared narratives make for a smoother communication
What are six physiological influences on perception that influence how we select, organize, interpret, and negotiate information?
The senses – differences in how each of us sees, hears, tastes, touches, and smells stimuli can affect interpersonal relationships. For example, something may be loud for one person and not to another
Age
Health and fatigue
Hunger
Biological cycles – for example, early birds or night owls
Psychological challenges – such as ADHD
Describe how cultural differences influence perception
Sometimes problems arise out of poor translation from one language to another
Nonverbal behaviours also have different meanings in different cultures – for example, Arabs consistently breathe on people when they talk
Beliefs about the value of talk differ from one culture to another - western cultures view talk as desirable and silence is considered negative. In Asian cultures, silence is valued an expression of thoughts and feelings is discouraged
Ethnocentrism – the attitude that one’s own culture is superior to others
The attitude that one’s own culture is superior to others
Ethnocentrism
What are three aspects of social roles that affect the perception process?
Gender roles- for example, gender refers to the social and psychological expectations that are placed on females, males, and trans gendered individuals. Socially approved ways in which individuals are expected to behave and they are learned from family, toys, peers, schools, the media, and fairytales. The problem with these outdated gender roles is that they limit the behaviours of everyone and perpetuate the notion that males are more superior and women are subordinate to men
Occupational roles- for example, the meteorologist notices changes in the sky whereas the zoologist looks for interesting animals
Relational roles – such as daughter, roommate, husband, friend. These roles not only define you, they also affect your perception
What are the three categories of influences on perception?
Physiological influences, cultural differences, social roles
The process of attaching meaning to behaviour
Attribution
The tendency to interpret and explain information in a way that casts the perceiver in the most favourable manner
Self-serving bias
The tendency to form an overall positive impression on the basis of one positive characteristic
Halo effect
What are four common tendencies in perception or how we attach meaning to behavior (attribution)? These perception tendencies can lead to attribution errors
We judge ourselves more charitably than others
We cling to first impressions
We assume that others are similar to us
We are influenced by the obvious – the problem is that the most obvious factor is not necessarily the only one – or the most significant one for an event
A three-part method for verifying the accuracy of interpretations, including a description of the behavior, two possible interpretations, and a request for clarification of the interpretation
Perception checking
Provides a better way to handle your interpretations – a tool to help you understand others accurately instead of assuming that your first interpretation is correct
What are the three elements of perception checking?
- Provide a description of the behaviour you noticed
- Offer at least two possible interpretations of the behaviour
- Request clarification about how to interpret the behaviour
Example:
When you rushed out of the room and slammed the door, (Behavior) I wasn’t sure whether you were mad at me (first interpretation) or just in a hurry (Second interpretation) how did you feel? (request for clarification)
What are three perception checking considerations?
Completeness – sometimes a perception check won’t need all the parts listed earlier to be effective. Could be just a simple question, such as “what’s going on?“. A complete perception check is most necessary when the risk of sounding judgemental his highest
Nonverbal congruency – a perception check can succeed only if your nonverbal behaviour reflects the open-mindedness of your words
Cultural rules – the straightforward approach of perception checking works best in low-context cultures such as North America where language is used as clearly and logically as possible. Members of high-context cultures such as Latin America and Asia value social harmony over clarity and are likely to regard perception checking as potentially embarrassing and prefer less direct ways of understanding
The ability to project oneself into another person’s point of view so as to experience the other’s thoughts and feelings
Empathy
What are three dimensions involved in empathy?
Perspective taking – an attempt to understand the viewpoint of another person
Emotional dimension – helps us get closer and gain a sense of the other person’s fear, joy, sadness, and so on
Genuine concern for the welfare of the other person
Compassion for another’s situation
Sympathy
The ability to construct a variety of frameworks for viewing an issue
Cognitive complexity
To look at an event or interaction and offer several explanations for what might be happening
This can increase the chances of satisfying communication in various contexts
A way of understanding an issue from several perspectives, rather than with an egocentric “I’m right and you’re wrong“ attitude
Pillow method
Gets its name from the fact that problems have four sides and a middle
Describe the five positions in the pillow method
- I’m right, you’re wrong- we see the values in our position and find fault with those who disagree with us
- You’re right, I’m wrong- in this position, you try to build the strongest possible arguments to explain your opponents point of view. Identifying strengths in the other persons position and the flaws in your own
- Both right, both wrong – you would acknowledge the merits and flaws of each of your arguments. Can lead you to be less critical and more understanding of another’s point of view
- The issue isn’t as important as it seems – most concerns are less important than we make them out to be and effects often disappear with time
- Conclusion – there is truth in all four perspectives – recognizing that each position has some merit – there can be some truth in each position
