Chapter 3: Perception

Question 1

The process whereby we assign meaning to the world around us

Answer 1

Perception

Question 2

What are the four steps in the perception process?

Answer 2

Selection, organization, interpretation, and negotiation

Question 3

The first stage in the perception process, in which some data are chosen to attend to and others to ignore

Answer 3

Selection

Question 4

What factors make some messages more noticeable than others? (4)

Answer 4

Stimuli that are more intense- for example, louder, larger, or brighter

Repetitious stimuli

Contrast or change

Motives – for example, if you’re late you’ll notice clocks around you or hungry you’ll spot restaurants

Question 5

The second stage in the perception process that involves arranging data in a meaningful way

Answer 5

Organization

We make sense of stimuli by noticing data that stand out as a figure against a less striking ground - this is the principle of figure-ground organization

Question 6

Cognitive frameworks that allow individuals to organize perceptual data that they have selected from the environment. These include physical, role, interaction, psychological, and membership constructs

Answer 6

Perceptual schemata

Part of the perception process organization

Question 7

This construct of perceptual schemata allow us to classify people according to their appearance – for example, male or female, attractive or sloppy, big or small, young or old

Answer 7

Physical constructs

Question 8

This construct of perceptual schemata used social position to organize data – such as student, lawyer, husband

Answer 8

Role constructs

Question 9

This construct of perceptual schemata focuses on social behaviour to organize perceptual data – for example, friendly, intense, helpful

Answer 9

Interaction constructs

Question 10

This construct of perceptual schemata organizes people according to their apparent personalities – such as curious, nervous, insecure

Answer 10

Psychological constructs

Question 11

This construct of perceptual schemata help us identify others according to the group or groups they belong to – union rep, clergy, healthcare worker

Answer 11

Membership constructs

Question 12

In perceptual process, Organization, we use this organizing scheme to–categorize individuals according to a set of characteristics assumed to belong to all members of a group

Making generalizations and predictions about members of the group who fit the categories we use

Answer 12

Stereotyping

Question 13

In perceptual process, Organization, we use this organizing scheme – the process of determining the causal order of events

Answer 13

Punctuation

How actions are interpreted depends on when the interpreter thinks they occurred

Question 14

The third step of the perception process – the process of attaching meaning to sense data; synonymous with decode

Answer 14

Interpretation

Question 15

In the interpretation stage of the perception process, what factors affect how we interpret data? (8)

Answer 15

Degree of involvement with the other person- for example, we sometimes view people with whom we have or seek a relationship more favourably than others

Personal experience- what meaning have similar events held?

Assumptions about human behaviour – what we believe affects how we interpret the behaviour

Expectations – anticipation shapes interpretations

Knowledge – if you know something about a friend, you’ll interpret their behaviour differently

Self-concept – for example, the world seems very different when you’re feeling insecure. The way we feel about ourselves strongly influences how we interpret others’ behaviour

Relational satisfaction – a behaviour that seems positive when you’re happy with a partner might seem completely different when you’re not

Question 16

The fourth stage in the perception process – what occurs between and among people as they influence one another’s perceptions and try to achieve a shared perspective

Answer 16

Negotiation

Question 17

The stories we use to describe our personal worlds

Answer 17

Narratives

Part of the negotiation process in the perception process.

When our narratives clash, we can either hang onto our own point of view or negotiate a shared narrative that creates some common ground. Shared narratives make for a smoother communication

Question 18

What are six physiological influences on perception that influence how we select, organize, interpret, and negotiate information?

Answer 18

The senses – differences in how each of us sees, hears, tastes, touches, and smells stimuli can affect interpersonal relationships. For example, something may be loud for one person and not to another

Age

Health and fatigue

Hunger

Biological cycles – for example, early birds or night owls

Psychological challenges – such as ADHD

Question 19

Describe how cultural differences influence perception

Answer 19

Sometimes problems arise out of poor translation from one language to another

Nonverbal behaviours also have different meanings in different cultures – for example, Arabs consistently breathe on people when they talk

Beliefs about the value of talk differ from one culture to another - western cultures view talk as desirable and silence is considered negative. In Asian cultures, silence is valued an expression of thoughts and feelings is discouraged

Ethnocentrism – the attitude that one’s own culture is superior to others

Question 20

The attitude that one’s own culture is superior to others

Answer 20

Ethnocentrism

Question 21

What are three aspects of social roles that affect the perception process?

Answer 21

Gender roles- for example, gender refers to the social and psychological expectations that are placed on females, males, and trans gendered individuals. Socially approved ways in which individuals are expected to behave and they are learned from family, toys, peers, schools, the media, and fairytales. The problem with these outdated gender roles is that they limit the behaviours of everyone and perpetuate the notion that males are more superior and women are subordinate to men

Occupational roles- for example, the meteorologist notices changes in the sky whereas the zoologist looks for interesting animals

Relational roles – such as daughter, roommate, husband, friend. These roles not only define you, they also affect your perception

Question 22

What are the three categories of influences on perception?

Answer 22

Physiological influences, cultural differences, social roles

Question 23

The process of attaching meaning to behaviour

Answer 23

Attribution

Question 24

The tendency to interpret and explain information in a way that casts the perceiver in the most favourable manner

Answer 24

Self-serving bias

Question 25

The tendency to form an overall positive impression on the basis of one positive characteristic

Answer 25

Halo effect

Question 26

What are four common tendencies in perception or how we attach meaning to behavior (attribution)? These perception tendencies can lead to attribution errors

Answer 26

We judge ourselves more charitably than others

We cling to first impressions

We assume that others are similar to us

We are influenced by the obvious – the problem is that the most obvious factor is not necessarily the only one – or the most significant one for an event

Question 27

A three-part method for verifying the accuracy of interpretations, including a description of the behavior, two possible interpretations, and a request for clarification of the interpretation

Answer 27

Perception checking

Provides a better way to handle your interpretations – a tool to help you understand others accurately instead of assuming that your first interpretation is correct

Question 28

What are the three elements of perception checking?

Answer 28

1. Provide a description of the behaviour you noticed
2. Offer at least two possible interpretations of the behaviour
3. Request clarification about how to interpret the behaviour

Example:

When you rushed out of the room and slammed the door, (Behavior) I wasn’t sure whether you were mad at me (first interpretation) or just in a hurry (Second interpretation) how did you feel? (request for clarification)

Question 29

What are three perception checking considerations?

Answer 29

Completeness – sometimes a perception check won’t need all the parts listed earlier to be effective. Could be just a simple question, such as “what’s going on?“. A complete perception check is most necessary when the risk of sounding judgemental his highest

Nonverbal congruency – a perception check can succeed only if your nonverbal behaviour reflects the open-mindedness of your words

Cultural rules – the straightforward approach of perception checking works best in low-context cultures such as North America where language is used as clearly and logically as possible. Members of high-context cultures such as Latin America and Asia value social harmony over clarity and are likely to regard perception checking as potentially embarrassing and prefer less direct ways of understanding

Question 30

The ability to project oneself into another person’s point of view so as to experience the other’s thoughts and feelings

Answer 30

Empathy

Question 31

What are three dimensions involved in empathy?

Answer 31

Perspective taking – an attempt to understand the viewpoint of another person

Emotional dimension – helps us get closer and gain a sense of the other person’s fear, joy, sadness, and so on

Genuine concern for the welfare of the other person

Question 32

Compassion for another’s situation

Answer 32

Sympathy

Question 33

The ability to construct a variety of frameworks for viewing an issue

Answer 33

Cognitive complexity

To look at an event or interaction and offer several explanations for what might be happening

This can increase the chances of satisfying communication in various contexts

Question 34

A way of understanding an issue from several perspectives, rather than with an egocentric “I’m right and you’re wrong“ attitude

Answer 34

Pillow method

Gets its name from the fact that problems have four sides and a middle

Question 35

Describe the five positions in the pillow method

Answer 35

1. I’m right, you’re wrong- we see the values in our position and find fault with those who disagree with us
2. You’re right, I’m wrong- in this position, you try to build the strongest possible arguments to explain your opponents point of view. Identifying strengths in the other persons position and the flaws in your own
3. Both right, both wrong – you would acknowledge the merits and flaws of each of your arguments. Can lead you to be less critical and more understanding of another’s point of view
4. The issue isn’t as important as it seems – most concerns are less important than we make them out to be and effects often disappear with time
5. Conclusion – there is truth in all four perspectives – recognizing that each position has some merit – there can be some truth in each position