Chapter 5 Flashcards

1
Q

Myelin

A

The fatty substance coating axons that speeds the transmission of nerve impulses from neuron to neuron.

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2
Q

Corpus callosum

A

A long, thick band of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain and allows communication between

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3
Q

Lateralization

A

Literally, “sidedness,” referring to the specialization in certain functions by each side of the brain, with one side dominant for each activity. The left side of the brain controls the right side of the body, and vice versa.

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4
Q

How are growth rates, body proportions, and motor skills related during early childhood?

A

All motor skills become easier as young children grow past the top-heavy proportions of infancy, and the overall growth results in relatively more height than body fat

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5
Q

What is changing in rates of early-childhood obesity and why?

A

At every age and nation in the twenty-first century, rates of overweight and obesity are increasing. This trend is evident in early childhood when current rates are compared to earlier decades

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6
Q

How is childhood obesity affected by family income?

A

In developed nations, because cheap food is available, obesity rates increase as income falls. There are many reasons for this, including that fresh fruits and vegetables are more expensive, and that safe exercise is less available.

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7
Q

How does myelination advance skill development?

A

Myelination speeds impulses from one neuron to another, improving the rate of practice and thus increasing mastery of skills.

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8
Q

How is the corpus callosum crucial for learning?

A

Many learned skills require both sides of the brain. That makes the corpus collosum, which facilitates communication between the brain’s hemispheres, crucial.

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9
Q

What do impulse control and perseveration have in common?

A

Both require the prefrontal cortex, which fosters emotional regulation and cognitive flexibility.

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10
Q

Preoperational intelligence

A

Piaget’s term for cognitive development between the ages of about 2 and 6; it includes language and imagination (which involve symbolic thought), but logical, operational thinking is not yet possible at this stage.

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11
Q

Symbolic thought

A

A major accomplishment of preoperational intelligence that allows a child to think symbolically, including understanding that words can refer to things not seen and that an item, such as a flag, can symbolize something else (in this case, a country).

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12
Q

Animism

A

The belief that natural objects and phenomena are alive, moving around, and having sensations and abilities that are humanlike.

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13
Q

Centration

A

A characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child focuses (centers) on one idea, excluding all others.

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14
Q

Egocentrism

A

Piaget’s term for children’s tendency to think about the world entirely from their own personal perspective.

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15
Q

Focus on appearance

A

A characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child ignores all attributes that are not apparent.

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16
Q

Static reasoning

A

A characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child thinks that nothing changes. Whatever is now has always been and always will be.

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17
Q

Irreversibility

A

A characteristic of preoperational thought in which a young child thinks that nothing can be undone. A thing cannot be restored to the way it was before a change occurred.

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18
Q

Conservation

A

The principle that the amount of a substance remains the same (i.e., is conserved) even when its appearance changes.

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19
Q

Mentor

A

Someone who teaches a person. Mentors teach by example and encouragement, as well as directly. Anyone can be a mentor: peers, relatives, neighbors, strangers, or teachers.

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20
Q

Zone of proximal development

A

Vygotsky’s term for the skills — cognitive as well as physical — that a person can exercise only with assistance, not yet independently.

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21
Q

Scaffolding

A

Temporary support that is tailored to a learner’s needs and abilities and aimed at helping the learner master the next task in a given learning process.

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22
Q

Overimitation

A

When a person imitates an action that is not a relevant part of the behavior to be learned. Overimitation is common among 2- to 6-year-olds when they imitate adult actions that are irrelevant and inefficient.

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23
Q

Private speech

A

The internal dialogue that occurs when people talk to themselves (either silently or out loud).

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24
Q

Social mediation

A

Human interaction that expands and advances understanding, often through words that one person uses to explain something to another.

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25
Q

Theory of mind

A

A person’s theory of what other people might be thinking. In order to have a theory of mind, children must realize that other people are not necessarily thinking the same thoughts that they themselves are. That realization seldom occurs before age 4.

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26
Q

Executive function

A

The cognitive ability to organize and prioritize the many thoughts that arise from the various parts of the brain, allowing the person to anticipate, strategize, and plan behavior.

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27
Q

working memory

A

remembering what was seen a minute ago or yesterday, or what can easily be brought to mind, not for what happened years ago

28
Q

Inhibition

A

the second crucial cognitive skill. This is the ability to control responses, to stop and think for a moment before acting or talking.

29
Q

flexibility

A

the ability to see things from another perspective rather than staying stuck in one idea.

30
Q

How does preoperational thought differ from sensorimotor intelligence and from concrete operational thought?

A

Preoperational thinking includes symbolic thought, including language, unlike sensorimotor thought, but it does not yet include logic, unlike concrete operational thought

31
Q

What barriers to logic are evident in preoperational children?

A

Preoperational children are egocentric, more emotional than logical. They focus on the present, not the past or future

32
Q

According to Vygotsky, what should parents and other caregivers do to encourage children’s learning?

A

Understanding the zone of proximal development requires knowing what the child already knows, and what is the next step in learning. Then motivation, apprenticeship, and scaffolding are useful.

33
Q

How does scaffolding relate to a child’s zone of proximal development?

A

Scaffolding allows the child to build on what is already known to venture into new learning. Once the new learning has occurred, the scaffold is no longer needed.

34
Q

How can adults increase STEM education?

A

Adults can include math and science concepts in daily life.
Specifics depend on the age and surroundings of the child, such as three cookies or that flowers need water and sun. As children grow older, conversation deepens - 1/8th of a pizza, or seeds and photosynthesis.

35
Q

How does the development of theory of mind relate to Piaget and Vygotsky?

A

Theory of mind includes social understanding. Piaget noted that the egocentrism of the young child makes theory of mind difficult, and Vygotsky emphasized sociocultural learning, necessary for theory of mind.

36
Q

What are the three aspects of executive function?

A

The main three are inhibition (restraint of impulses), working memory (for prior experiences), and cognitive flexibility (changing strategies and plans).

37
Q

What is the relationship between executive function and learning in school?

A

Children who have better executive function find school learning easier, since they can follow teachers’ directions rather than the own immediate impulses.

38
Q

Fast-mapping

A

The speedy and sometimes imprecise way in which children learn new words by tentatively placing them in mental categories according to their perceived meaning.

39
Q

logical extension

A

After learning a word, children use it to describe other objects in the same category.

40
Q

Overregularization

A

The application of rules of grammar even when exceptions occur, making the language seem more “regular” than it actually is.

41
Q

Pragmatics

A

The practical use of language that includes the ability to adjust language communication according to audience and context.

42
Q

language shift

A

when a child becomes fluent in the majority language and loses their heritage language.

43
Q

Code-focused teaching

A

In order for children to read, they must “break the code” from spoken to written words. One step is to connect letters and sounds (e.g., “A, alligators all around” or “B is for baby”).

44
Q

Book-reading

A

Vocabulary and print-awareness develop when adults read to children.

45
Q

Parent education

A

When parents know how to encourage cognition (listening and talking), children become better readers. Adult vocabulary expands children’s vocabulary.

46
Q

Language enhancement

A

Within each child’s zone of proximal development, adults help children expand vocabulary. That requires mentors who know each child’s zone and individualize conversation.

47
Q

Early-education programs

A

Children learn from teachers, songs, excursions, and other children. (We discuss variations of early education next, but every study finds that preschools advance language acquisition.)

48
Q

What is the evidence that early childhood is a sensitive time for learning language?

A

Without explicit instruction, young children learn several vocabulary words, more advanced grammar, and better pragmatics every day of early childhood. Many learn more than one language.

49
Q

How does fast-mapping aid the language explosion?

A

Quick association of a new word with similar words speeds understand of new vocabulary. More accurate, nuanced
understanding (slow-mapping) comes later.

50
Q

How can overregularization signify a cognitive advance?

A

Overregularization requires recognizing and applying rules of grammar. Children eventually learn that there are many irregular words, but recognition and application of the regular rules indicates language comprehension.

51
Q

When should children learn grammar?

A

Children learn grammar as they learn language, listening to others talk, gradually mastering the art of clear and complex communication. The formal rules of grammar (subjunctive, past perfect etc.) are not usually understood until formal education.

52
Q

Why is early childhood the best time to learn a second (or third) language?

A

Early childhood is a sensitive period for language learning, not only because brain development is more open but also because young children are eager to communicate and less fearful of making mistakes.

53
Q

What are three ways that adults can encourage language development?

A

Listening, talking, and reading. Each of these needs to be supportive and interactive.

54
Q

What aspects of language seem difficult for young children?

A

Every language has some aspects of language that are difficult for young children to understand. Generally, young children have difficulty with words that have no concrete reference, such as words that refer to the future and past, to political or economic systems, or complex family relationships.

55
Q

child-centered (developmental)

A

they stress each child’s development and growth. They emphasize “teaching the whole child,” which means individualized social and emotional learning, not academics

56
Q

Montessori schools

A

Schools that offer early-childhood education based on the philosophy of Maria Montessori, which emphasizes careful work and tasks that each young child can do.

57
Q

Reggio emilia

A

A program of early-childhood education that originated in the town of Reggio Emilia, Italy, and that encourages each child’s creativity in a carefully designed setting.

58
Q

Waldorf

A

An early-childhood education program than emphasizes creativity, social understanding, and emotional growth. It originated in Germany with Rudolf Steiner, and now is used in thousands of schools throughout the world.

59
Q

Head start

A

A federally funded early-childhood intervention program for low-income children of preschool age.

60
Q

What are the long-term benefits of early-childhood education?

A

Intensive longitudinal studies find benefits in academic achievement, graduation, employment, and health.

61
Q

In child-centered programs, what do the teachers do?

A

The focus is on the development of each child, so teachers work with individuals and small groups, helping each child develop their creative expression, their listening and talking skills, their social interactions.

62
Q

Why are Montessori schools still functioning 100 years after the first such schools opened?

A

The basic concept, that each child is proud to accomplish many tasks, and that teachers need to prepare materials and guide learning, still seems relevant to many caregivers and children.

63
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of teacher-directed preschools?

A

Teacher-directed preschools prepare children for formal education: they teach letters, shapes, numbers, and respect for adults. The disadvantage is that some creativity and independence is lost.

64
Q

Who benefits most from Head Start?

A

All young children are likely to benefit from early education, but those most likely to benefit specifically from Head Start are those without other forms of early education in preschool or at home.
These include children with disabilities, or with limited education within their families, or whose home language is not the school language.

65
Q

Why do teachers, parents, professionals, and politicians disagree about early education?

A

Many reasons. Teachers and professionals see many benefits, most of which occur years after the politicians who approve funding some programs and not others. Thus, professionals consider longitudinal gains, but politicians focus on immediate benefits, because that becomes votes. Parents are caught in the middle-they want the best for their children but do not know what that is and may not be able to pay for it.