Chapter 4 Flashcards

1
Q

Psychosocial development during infancy can be seen as two interwoven strands — ____/______, ______/______, or _____-_____/_____-_____

A

nature/nurture, universal/particular, or experience-expectant/experience-dependent

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2
Q

Primary emotions

A

called “natural kinds,” which means they are innate and universal

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3
Q

Four primary emotions

A

happiness, sadness, fear, and anger.

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4
Q

two more primary emotions that some scholars include

A

surprise and disgust.

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5
Q

colic

A

bouts of uncontrollable crying

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6
Q

What to they think may be the cause of colic?

A

immature digestion or the infant version of a migraine headache

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7
Q

What do they think is the cause of reflux?

A

Immature swallowing

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8
Q

Social smile

A

A smile evoked by a human face, normally first evident in infants about 6 weeks after birth

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9
Q

Separation anxiety

A

An infant’s distress when a familiar caregiver leaves; most obvious between 9 and 14 months.

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10
Q

Stranger wariness

A

An infant’s expression of concern — a quiet stare while clinging to a familiar person, or a look of fear — when a stranger appears.

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11
Q

The new strength of emotions is apparent in ______

A

tantrums

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12
Q

Secondary emotions emerge in toddlerhood, including ____, _____, ____, ____, and _____

A

pride, shame, jealousy, embarrassment, and guilt

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13
Q

Self-awareness

A

A person’s realization that he or she is a distinct individual whose body, mind, and actions are separate from those of other people.

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14
Q

When do babies typically become self-aware?

A

Between 15 and 24 months

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15
Q

Temperament

A

Inborn differences between one person and another in emotions, activity, and self-regulation. It is measured by the person’s typical responses to the environment.

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16
Q

three distinct traits found when studying temperament:

A

Effortful control (regulating attention and emotion, self-soothing);
Negative mood (fearful, angry, unhappy); and
Exuberance (active, social, not shy).

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17
Q

Why are happiness, anger, and fear considered primary emotions?

A

Primary emotions are present at birth and are experienced by everyone lifelong. Happiness, anger, and fear fit those criteria.

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18
Q

How do emotions differ between the first and second year of life?

A

In the first year, basic emotions are present; in the second year, new emotions (such as pride) develop that show awareness of the social context.

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19
Q

What emotions require some social awareness?

A

Pride, shame, jealousy, embarrassment, and guilt.

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20
Q

When are separation anxiety and stranger wariness typical, and when are they signs of disorders?

A

They are typical at age 1. If they continue strongly after age 3, they may be crippling disorders.

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21
Q

What is the significance of toddlers’ reactions to seeing themselves in a mirror?

A

Toddlers reveal self-awareness if they know that the mirror is their own reflection, not that of another child.

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22
Q

How much of infant temperament is inborn, and how much depends on experience?

A

Temperament is inborn, but experience shapes, increases, or decreases these inborn traits. Determining “how much” is difficult, as that varies by person and by trait

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23
Q

What are the three dimensions of temperament?

A

Effortful control, negative mood, and exuberance

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24
Q

What is the relationship between temperament and maltreatment?

A

Infants who are temperamentally difficult are more likely to be mistreated and become worse because of it. Infants who are temperamentally easy may escape mistreatment, or they may not be affected by it.

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25
Q

Synchrony

A

A coordinated, rapid, and smooth exchange of responses between a caregiver and an infant.

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26
Q

Attachment

A

According to Ainsworth, “an affectional tie” that an infant forms with a caregiver — a tie that binds them together in space and endures over time.

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27
Q

Preattachment

A

Newborns signal, via crying and body movements, that they need others. When people respond positively, the newborn is comforted and learns to seek more interaction. Newborns are also primed by brain patterns to recognize familiar voices and faces.

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28
Q

Attachment in the making

A

Infants respond preferentially to familiar people by smiling, laughing, babbling. Their caregivers’ voices, touch, expressions, and gestures are comforting, often overriding the infant’s impulse to cry. Trust (Erikson) develops.

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29
Q

Classic secure attachment

A

Infants greet the primary caregiver, play happily when the caregiver is present, show separation anxiety when the caregiver leaves. Both infant and caregiver seek to be close to each other (proximity) and frequently look at each other (contact). In many caregiver–infant pairs, physical touch (patting, holding, caressing) is frequent.

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30
Q

Attachment as launching pad

A

Young children seek their caregiver’s praise and reassurance as their social world expands. Interactive conversations and games (hide-and-seek, object play, reading, pretending) are common. Children expect caregivers to comfort and entertain.

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31
Q

Mutual attachment

A

Children seek to make their caregivers proud by learning whatever adults want them to learn, and adults reciprocate. In concrete operational thought (Piaget), specific accomplishments are valued by adults and children.

32
Q

New attachment figures

A

Teenagers explore and make friendships independent from parents, using their working models of earlier attachments as a base. With formal operational thinking (Piaget), shared ideals and goals become influential.

33
Q

Attachment revisited

A

Adults develop relationships with others, especially relationships with romantic partners and their own children, influenced by earlier attachment patterns. Past insecure attachments from childhood can be repaired rather than repeated, although this does not always happen.

34
Q

Secure attachment

A

A relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver.

35
Q

Insecure/avoidant attachment

A

A pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver’s presence, departure, or return.

36
Q

Insecure/ambivalent attachment

A

A pattern of attachment in which an infant’s anxiety and uncertainty are evident, as when the infant becomes very upset at separation from the caregiver and both resists and seeks contact on reunion.

37
Q

Disorganized attachment

A

A type of attachment that is marked by an infant’s inconsistent reactions to the caregiver’s departure and return.

38
Q

attachment parenting

A

prioritizes the mother–infant relationship during the first three years of life. Attachment parenting mandates that mothers should always be near their infants (co-sleeping, “wearing” the baby in a wrap or sling, breast-feeding on demand).

39
Q

home visiting

A

when nurses or other professionals visit new mothers in their homes, teaching them how to care for their infants

40
Q

operational definition

A

an observable behavior that indicates the construct, so that other scientists know what is measured and can replicate the study.

41
Q

Strange situation

A

A laboratory procedure for measuring attachment by evoking infants’ reactions to the stress of various adults’ comings and goings in an unfamiliar playroom.

42
Q

Social referencing

A

Seeking information about how to react to an unfamiliar or ambiguous object or event by observing someone else’s expressions and reactions. That other person becomes a social reference.

43
Q

Why does synchrony affect early emotional development?

A

A major part of synchrony is mirroring the expression of emotions, which helps infants develop their own emotions.

44
Q

02: How are proximity-seeking and contact-maintaining attachment expressed by infants and caregivers?

A

In many ways. Touch (pat, caress, cuddle) is common; so is eye contact

45
Q

How does infant behavior differ in each of the four types of attachment?

A

Exploration with some social connection is secure (type B); turning away and ignoring is type A; clinging and crying is type C (both insecure); and erratic and freezing is disorganized (type D).

46
Q

How might each of the four types of attachment be expressed in adulthood?

A

Adults who are secure are confident and appreciative of their relationships, a contrast to insecure adults who are fearful of closeness (type A) or over-dependent (type C). Disorganized adults change from dismissive to controlling, angry to apologetic.

47
Q

What has been learned from the research on Romanian orphans?

A

The Romanian orphans sadly demonstrated that social affection is as important for healthy development in infancy and early childhood as is physical care.

48
Q

How is social referencing important in toddlerhood?

A

Toddlers need to learn what is dangerous and what is interesting to explore. They refer to the facial expressions and words of others, especially their caregivers, to learn.

49
Q

What are the differences and similarities between mothers and fathers in infancy?

A

Both parents can, and often do, provide all the care and interaction that infants need. However, some general trends are that mothers do more soothing and physical care, and fathers do more exciting play and intellectual stimulation.

50
Q

oral stage

A

the mouth is the young infant’s primary source of gratification.

51
Q

anal stage

A

pleasure comes from the anus — particularly from the sensual satisfaction of bowel movements and, eventually, the psychological pleasure of controlling them.

52
Q

Trust vs mistrust

A

Erikson’s first crisis of psychosocial development. Infants learn basic trust if the world is a secure place where their basic needs (for food, comfort, attention, and so on) are met.

53
Q

Autonomy vs shame and doubt

A

Erikson’s second crisis of psychosocial development. Toddlers either succeed or fail in gaining a sense of self-rule over their actions and their bodies.

54
Q

Proximal parenting

A

Caregiving practices that involve being physically close to the baby, with frequent holding and touching.

55
Q

Distal parenting

A

Caregiving practices that involve remaining distant from the baby, providing toys, food, and face-to-face communication with minimal holding and touching.

56
Q

Working model

A

In cognitive theory, a set of assumptions that the individual uses to organize perceptions and experiences. For example, a person might assume that other people are trustworthy and be surprised by an incident in which this working model of human behavior is erroneous.

57
Q

Allocare

A

Literally, “other-care”; the care of children by people other than the biological parents.

58
Q

According to Freud, what might happen if a baby’s oral needs are not met?

A

The infant might become an adult who is fixated at the oral stage, sking mouth pleasure (eating, chewing, smoking, drinking) and having babyish traits (such as being disorganized and late).

59
Q

How might Erikson’s crisis of “trust versus mistrust” affect later life?

A

An adult might be unusually trusting of others, even strangers, or unusually mistrustful, even of their closest friends.

60
Q

How do behaviorists explain the development of emotions and personality?

A

Behaviorists believe that people develop emotions and personality by observing other people and by being directly reinforced (usually with praise) for some emotions and not for others. Parents, peers, and the culture provide the reinforcements and punishments.

61
Q

What does the term working model mean within cognitive theory?

A

That certain behaviors and attitudes are a “work in progress,” open to change if new experiences and cognitions arise.

62
Q

What is the difference between proximal and distal parenting?

A

Proximal parenting emphasize physical closeness between caregiver and child (holding, caressing, quieting) and distal parenting involves more talking and object play.

63
Q

How does evolution explain the parent-child bond?

A

Humans have developed, over 200,000 years, emotions and impulses that promote survival of homo sapiens. Adults are primed to protect, nurture, and educate the next generation because that is how our species survives. One example is the devotion and sacrifice of parents to their offspring (the parent-child bond).

64
Q

Why is allocare necessary for survival of the human species?

A

Since infants require extensive devotion for years, and since human brains do not reach full power until age 25 or so, allocare is essential, because, without it, each mother could raise only one or two children-not enough to ensure future species survival.

65
Q

Adequate attention to each infant

A

A small group of infants (no more than eight) needs two reliable, familiar, loving caregivers. Continuity of care is crucial.

66
Q

Encouragement of language and sensorimotor development

A

Infants need language — songs, conversations, and positive talk — and easily manipulated toys.

67
Q

Attention to health and safety

A

Cleanliness routines (e.g., handwashing), accident prevention (e.g., no small objects), and safe areas to explore are essential.

68
Q

Professional caregivers

A

Caregivers should have experience and degrees/certificates in early-childhood education. Turnover should be low, morale high, and enthusiasm evident.

69
Q

Warm and responsive caregivers

A

Providers should engage the children in active play and guide them in problem solving. Quiet, obedient children may indicate unresponsive care.

70
Q

Why do people disagree about who should provide care for infants?

A

The heart of this dispute may be disagreement about the proper role of mothers, either as the one person uniquely suited to raise her own children, or as women who could be employees with the same status and responsibilities as men.

71
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of nonmaternal infant care?

A

The advantage is that it frees parents and grandparents to be active workers, and it can provide stimulating cognitive and emotional development for infants. The disadvantage is that providing excellent care for infants requires major economic investment. Given that, some infant care is far from excellent, with cheap care having the potential to harm infant health and learning.

72
Q

What are some international differences in infant care?

A

In some nations, the government provides excellent infant care for all babies; in others, very little infant care is available, and still others have a patchwork with some infant care, some full-time maternal care, and some informal care from relatives or strangers.

73
Q

What changes are occurring in allocare?

A

More mothers are employed, which means more nonmaternal care for babies.

74
Q

What distinguishes high-quality from low-quality infant care?

A

The main difference is in the training, temperament, and experience of the caregivers, as well as in the adult:child ratio.

75
Q

What aspects of infant care are agreed on by everyone?

A

Everyone now recognized that remarkable cognitive, linguistic, and social growth occurs in infants, and the adults foster these developments.