Chapter 1 Flashcards
Science of human development
The science that seeks to understand how and why people of all ages and circumstances change or remain the same over time.
What are the four types of development over the life span?
Multi-directional, multi-contextual, multi-cultural, and plastic
Scientific method
A way to answer questions using empirical research and data-based conclusions.
What are the 5 steps to the scientific method?
Begin with curiosity, develop a hypothesis, test the hypothesis, draw conclusions, and report the results
Hypothesis
A specific prediction that can be tested, and proven or disproved
Replication
Repeating a study, usually using different participants, perhaps of another age, SES, or culture.
Nature
In development, nature refers to genes. Thus, traits, capacities, and limitations inherited at conception are nature.
Nurture
In development, nurture includes all environmental influences that occur after conception, from the mother’s nutrition while pregnant to the culture of the nation.
T/F: some people believe that most traits are inborn
True
Differential susceptibility
The idea that people vary in how sensitive (for better or worse) they are to particular experiences, either because of their genes or because of their past experiences. (Also called differential sensitivity.)
What is the floral metaphor that scientists use to capture the idea of differential susceptibility?
Some people are like dandelions — hardy, growing and thriving in good soil or bad, with or without ample sun and rain. They are not susceptible to the environment. Other people are like orchids — quite wonderful, but only under ideal conditions
Why is replication important?
Every study involved particular people in a specific context. Something in design, in local conditions, or in the participants, might produce results that are valid only under those conditions. Replication distinguishes what is generally true and what is limited.
What basic question is at the heart of the nature-nurture controversy?
Are the differences between humans, and the development of each person, the result of genes present at conception or everything that happens after conception?
What is the difference between a dandelion and an orchid?
Dandelions grow well under many conditions, and orchids thrive only with special care
How might differential susceptibility apply to adults?
The impact of any particular sensation, thought, or event in an adult’s life is affected by that person’s genes and past experiences
Life-span perspective
An approach to the study of human development that includes all phases, from birth to death.
Multi-directional
Multiple changes, in every direction, characterize the life span
Discontinuity
Change can occur rapidly and dramatically, as when caterpillars become butterflies
Continuity
Growth can be gradual, as when redwoods grow taller over hundreds of years.
Stability
No change occurs. For instance, chromosomal sex is lifelong.
What do theorists see due to the multi-directional paths of human development?
Gains and losses throughout life, often at the same time
Critical period
Time when a particular development must occur. If it does not, as when something toxic prevents that growth, then it cannot develop later.
Thalidomide
An anti nausea drug, taken by pregnant women that disrupted the limb formation in embryos
Sensitive period
A time when a particular developmental growth is most likely to occur, although it may still happen later.
Multiple-contextual
everyone is profoundly affected by their surroundings
Social context
includes everyone who influences each developing person, immediately and over time, directly and indirectly.
Ecological-systems approach
A perspective on human development that considers all of the influences from the various contexts of development. (Later renamed bioecological theory.)
microsystem
each person’s immediate social contexts, such as family and peer group.
exosystem
local institutions such as school and church
macrosystem
the larger setting, including cultural values, economic policies, and political processes
Mesosystem
consists of the connections among the other systems.
chronosystem
literally, “time system”, which is the historical context.
bioecological system
the internal biology of the person
Cohort
People born within the same historical period who therefore move through life together, experiencing the same events, new technologies, and cultural shifts at the same ages.
Socioeconomic status
A person’s position in society as determined by income, occupation, education, and place of residence. (Sometimes called social class.)
Multi-cultural
Needs to be recognized in order to learn about “all kinds of people, everywhere, at every age”
Culture
A system of shared beliefs, norms, behaviors, and expectations that persist over time and prescribe social behavior and assumptions.
Social construction
An idea that is built on shared perceptions, not on objective reality.
Difference-equals-deficit error
The mistaken belief that a deviation from some norm is necessarily inferior.
Ethnic group
People whose ancestors were born in the same region. Usually they share a language, culture, and/or religion.
Race
The concept that some people are distinct from others because of physical appearance, typically skin color. Social scientists think race is a misleading idea, although race can be a powerful sociological idea, not based in biology.
Intersectionality
The idea that the various identities need to be combined. This is especially important in determining modes of privilege and discrimination.
Plasticity
The idea that abilities, personality, and other human characteristics are moldable, and thus can change.
What are the two facts that plasticity incorporates?
- People can change over time
- New behavior is affected by what has already happened
Dynamic-systems approach
A view of human development as an ongoing, ever-changing interaction between the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial influences.
What aspects of development show continuity?
At every age, some aspects are primarily a continuation of prior developments, and some aspects show discontinuity
What is the difference between a critical period and a sensitive period?
A critical period is a time when a certain development must occur, and if it does not, it cannot develop at a later time. A sensitive period is when a certain development occurs most readily, but later development is also possible.
Why is it useful to know when sensitive periods occur?
It is more effective to focus intervention during sensitive periods. For example, since the sensitive period for language development is in the first years of life, it is especially important to speak often to infants and young children in one or more languages
What did Bronfenbrenner emphasize in his ecological systems approach?
That each person’s development must be considered in context, including the family, community, and national setting, and that development in one aspect that affects every other aspect of
What are some of the social contexts of life?
Whenever other people affect individuals, that is a social context. Among the most common social contexts of development are family, peer group, and community
How does cohort differ from age group?
A cohort is a group born at about the same time, and thus they are affected by every historical condition in a particular way because of their chronological age
What factors compromise a persons’ SES?
The main three factors are income, education, and vocation - either one’s own or that of the head of the household. Neighborhood is sometimes considered a fourth factor
How are culture, race, and ethnicity distinct from each other?
Culture emphasizes traditions and values; race is a socially constructed designation that emphasizes external appearance, and ethnicity refers to heritage
What does it mean to say that human development is plastic?
Like plastic, development is molded and changed, but also like plastic, some characteristics endure. To take the metaphors further, some plastic is hard - molded in the beginning but not later but other types (such as plasticine) are moldable at any point
Theory
a comprehensive and organized explanation of many phenomena
Developmental theory
A group of ideas, assumptions, and generalizations about human growth. A developmental theory provides a framework to interpret growth and change.
Psychoanalytic theory
A theory of human development that contends that irrational, unconscious drives and motives underlie human behavior.
Oral stage
The lips, tongue, and gums are the focus of pleasurable sensations in the baby’s body, and sucking and feeding are the most stimulating activities.
Anal stage
The anus is the focus of pleasurable sensations (ew????) in the baby’s body, and toilet training is the most important activity.
phallic stage
The phallus (the Latin word for “penis”) is the most important body part, and pleasure is derived from genital stimulation. Boys are proud of their penises; girls wonder why they don’t have them.
Latency
Not really a stage, latency is an interlude. Sexual needs are quiet; psychic energy flows into sports, schoolwork, and friendship.
Genital stage
The genitals are the focus of pleasurable sensations, and the young person seeks sexual stimulation and satisfaction in heterosexual relationships (Freud is cancelled for this).
Trust vs. Mistrust
Babies either trust that others will satisfy their basic needs, including nourishment, warmth, cleanliness, and physical contact, or develop mistrust about the care of others
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Children either become self-sufficient in many activities, including toileting, feeding, walking, exploring, and talking, or doubt their own abilities.
Initiative vs. Guilt
Children either try to undertake many adultlike activities or internalize the limits and prohibitions set by parents. They feel either adventurous or guilty.
Industry vs. Inferiority
Children busily practice and then master new skills or feel inferior, unable to do anything well.
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Adolescents ask themselves “Who am I?” They establish sexual, political, religious, and vocational identities or are confused about their roles.
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Young adults seek companionship and love or become isolated from others, fearing rejection.
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Middle-aged adults contribute to future generations through work, creative activities, and parenthood or they stagnate.
Integrity vs. Despair
Older adults try to make sense of their lives, either seeing life as a meaningful whole or despairing at goals never reached.
Your kindergartners are talkative and always moving. They almost never sit quietly and listen to you. What would Erik Erikson recommend?
Erikson would note that the behavior of 5-year-olds is affected by their developmental stage and by their culture. Therefore, you might design your curriculum to accommodate active, noisy children
Behaviorism
A theory of human development that studies observable actions. Behaviorism is also called learning theory because it describes how people learn to do what they do.
Classical conditioning
Learning occurs through association. Neutral stimulus becomes conditioned response.
Operant conditioning
Learning occurs through reinforcement and punishment. Weak or rare responses become strong and frequent — or, with punishment, unwanted responses become extinct.
Social learning
Learning occurs through modeling what others do. Observed behaviors become copied behaviors.
Reinforcement
In behaviorism, the positive experience that follows a behavior, making it likely that the behavior will occur again.
Punishment
In behaviorism, the negative experience that follows a behavior, making it likely that the behavior will not occur again.
Cognitive theory
A theory of human development that focuses on how people think. According to this theory, our thoughts shape our attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors.
Cognitive
refers not just to thinking but also to attitudes, beliefs, and assumptions
Sensorimotor
Infants use senses and motor abilities to understand the world. Learning is active, without reflection.
Preoperational
Children think symbolically, with language, yet children are egocentric, perceiving from their own perspective.
Concrete operational
Children understand and apply logic. Thinking is limited by direct experience.
Formal operational
Adolescents and adults use abstract and hypothetical concepts. They can use analysis, not only emotion.
cognitive equilibrium
a state of mental balance.
Assimilation
to interpret new experiences through the lens of preexisting ideas.
accommodation
people reassess their old concepts to include the new information
information processing
focusing on what happens in the brain to cause intellectual growth.
constructive view of human cognition
people of all ages build (construct) their understanding of themselves and their world, combining their experiences and their interpretations.
Evolutionary theory
When used in human development, the idea that many current human emotions and impulses are a legacy from thousands of years ago.
What is the role of the unconscious in psychoanalytic theory?
In psychoanalytic theory, many thoughts, attitudes, and emotions arise from experiences and impulses hidden from conscious awareness, hence unconscious
How do Erikson’s stages differ from Freud’s?
Erikson envisioned stages of adult development, whereas Freud’s last stage was at adolescence, and Erikson recognized the power of cultural variations
How is behaviorism a reaction to psychoanalytic theory?
Behaviorists study observable actions, and reject the idea that hidden, unconscious forces need to be understood before actions change
How do classical and operant conditioning differ?
Classical conditioning focuses on what happens before behavior, when one stimulus becomes connected with another. Operant conditioning focuses on what happens after behavior, either reinforcement of punishment
What is the basic idea of cognitive theory?
What a person thinks and believes is a powerful influence on what they do and feel
What are the criticisms of Piaget’s theory?
Piaget’s emphasis on the four universal stages of cognitive development meant that he did not note the step-by-step learning that is the focus on information processing. He also did not recognize the cognitive developments that occur after adolescence
What is the emphasis of information processing?
Information processing examines the detailed steps of cognition, with a heavy emphasis on brain connections
How does evolutionary theory apply to human development?
Evolutionary theory emphasizes the instincts and emotions that have evolved in the human species over 100,000 years, and thus, that still affect humans in the twenty-first century
Scientific observation
Watching and recording participants’ behavior in a systematic and objective manner — in a natural setting, in a laboratory, or in searches of archival data.
Experiment
A research method in which the researcher adds one variable (called the independent variable) and then observes the effect on another variable (called the dependent variable) in order to learn if the independent variable causes change in the dependent variable.
Independent variable
A research method in which the researcher adds one variable (called the independent variable) and then observes the effect on another variable (called the dependent variable) in order to learn if the independent variable causes change in the dependent variable.
Dependent variable
In an experiment, the variable that may change as a result of the independent variable (whatever new condition the experimenter adds). In other words, the dependent variable depends on the independent variable.
What two groups does a typical experiment have?
The experimental group and the control group
Experimental group
experiences the particular treatment or condition (the independent variable)
Control group
Does not experience the particular treatment or condition (the independent variable)
Survey
A research method in which information is collected from a large number of people by interviews, written questionnaires, or some other means
Cross-sectional research
A research design that compares people who differ in age but not in other important characteristics.
Longitudinal research
A research design that follows the same individuals over time.
Cross-sequential research
A hybrid research design that includes cross-sectional and longitudinal research. (Also called cohort-sequential research or time-sequential research.)
Why does observation not prove “what causes what”?
Two carefully observed phenomena that occur together, or one phenomenon that proceeds another, might have occurred by chance, or might both be manifestations of another phenomenon. Correlation is not causation
Why do experimenters use control (or comparison) groups?
To show that a particular action caused a particular result, experimenters need to consider the effects of time and other effects that are not part of the experimental intervention. A control group reveals if the intervention itself, rather than something else, caused the outcome
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the survey method?
The strength of a survey is that results can be found quickly for a large group of participants. The weakness is survey results may be inaccurate, either because of the wording of the questions of the participants who do not know, or choose to reveal, their true answers
Why would a scientist conduct a cross-sectional study?
The advantage is that it is quick, and the easiest form of development research. Care must be taken to ensure that groups of two or more ages are similar in other ways (such as in gender, income, or so on) to see what effects age might have on
Why would a scientist conduct a longitudinal study?
Longitudinal research controls background differences, since age changes are studies in the same people as they grow older
Why isn’t all research cross-sequential?
Cross-sequential may be the most valid, but it requires years of extensive research and analysis. Thus, it takes a long time, is costly, and complex
When is a meta-analysis useful?
Many studies have few participants, or they occur with particular conditions or measures that may affect the results in ways that are unknown to the researchers. Combining the effects of many studies reveals results that are generally valid
Correlation
Usually a number between +1.0 and −1.0 that indicates whether and how much two variables are related. Correlation indicates whether an increase in one variable will increase or decrease another variable. Correlation indicates only that two variables are somehow related, not that one variable causes the other to increase or decrease.
Positive correlation
both variables tend to increase together or decrease together
Negative correlation
one variable tends to increase while the other decreases
Zero correlation
No connection is evident
Quantitative research
Research that provides data expressed with numbers, such as ranks or scales.
Qualitative research
Research that considers individual qualities instead of quantities (numbers).
Why does correlation not prove causation?
Correlation reveals that two variable that occur together, do not reveal that one caused the other. It is also possible that a their variable affected both variables, so neither was the cause of the other
What are the advantages and disadvantages of quantitative research?
When results are expressed in numbers, that makes statistical analysis possible. But numbers reduce some of the nuances and personal stories that are vital to understanding people
What are the advantages and disadvantages of qualitative research?
Qualitative research makes the nuances and personal stories come alive, but the need for interpretation allows bias in ways that quantitative research is not
What is the role of the IRB?
The institutional review board (IRB) is designed to protect participants, making sure that researchers care for the people in the study and follow other guidelines
Why might a political leader avoid funding developmental research?
Research may reach conclusions or discover facts that leaders do not want. The public may criticize the leaders for uncovering such facts, even if the conclusions result from careful use of the scientific method
