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Human physiology > Chapter 4: Energy and Cellular Metabolism > Flashcards

Chapter 4: Energy and Cellular Metabolism Flashcards

1
Q

characteristics of complex things that are unexpected based on the basic components

A

emergent properties

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2
Q

what are the properties of living organisms?

A
  1. complex structure whose basic unit is a cell
  2. aquire, transform, store, and use energy
  3. sense and respond to internal & external environements
  4. maintain homeostasis
  5. store, use and transmit info
  6. reproduce, develop, grow, and die
  7. have emergent properties
  8. individuals adapt and species evolve
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3
Q

where can organisms get energy?

A
  1. sunlight for plants (photosynthesis)
  2. chemical bonds for animals (respiration)
  3. open system
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4
Q

what does photosynthesis yield?

A

energy store in biomolecules

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5
Q

what does respiration yield?

A
  • energy for work
  • energy stored in biomolecules
  • H2O and CO2
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6
Q

broadly defined as the capacity to perform work

A

energy

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7
Q

what are the various forms of energy or “work”

A

chemical work
transport work
mechanical work

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8
Q

Making and breaking of chemical bonds

A

chemical work

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9
Q
  • Moving ions, molecules, and larger particles

* Creating concentration gradients

A

transport work

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10
Q
  • Moving organelles, changing cell shape, beating flagella and cilia
  • Contracting muscles
A

mechanical work

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11
Q

what are the two forms of energy?

A
  • kinetic energy

* potential energy

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12
Q
  • energy of motion
  • work involves movement
  • thermal energy, electromagnetic energy, electrical energy
A

kinetic energy

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13
Q
  • stored energy

- concentration gradients & chemical bonds

A

potential energy

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14
Q
  • Total amount of energy in the universe is constant (closed system)
  • Energy can be neither created nor destroyed
A

first law of thermodynamics

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15
Q

Processes move from a state of order to randomness or disorder (entropy)

A

second law of thermodynamics

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16
Q

always accompanied by either the release of energy or the input of energy

A

chemical reactions

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17
Q

the study of energy flow through biological systems

A

bioenergetics

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18
Q

the potential energy stored in the chemical bonds that is available to do work

A

free energy

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19
Q

the initial energy required to bring the reactants into a position to react with each other

A

activation energy

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20
Q

the difference in free energy between reactants and products.

A

Net free energy change of a reaction

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21
Q
  • releases energy because the products have less energy than the reactants
  • spontaneous
A

exergonic

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22
Q

*requires an input of energy
*trap some activation energy in the
products, which then have more free energy than the reactants
*nonspontaneous

A

endergonic

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23
Q

where does the activation energy come from?

A

Coupling an exergonic reaction to an endergonic reaction

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24
Q

biomolecules (mostly proteins) specialized to act as catalysts

A

enzymes

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25
Q

substances that increase the rates of chemical reactions

A

catalysts

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26
Q

how do enzymes speed up reactions?

A

by lowering the activation energy?

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27
Q

called substrates

A

reactants

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28
Q
  • vitamin-derived cofactors that do not have catalytic activity but participate directly in the reactions catalyzed by enzymes
  • carry chemical groups from one reaction to another
A

coenzymes

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29
Q

what are examples of coenzymes?

A

FAD
NAD
coenzyme A

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30
Q

how can enzyme activity be modulated?

A
  • chemical factors (allosteric regulation)

* changes in temperature and pH

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31
Q

what are the categories of enzymatic reactions?

A
  • oxidation-reduction
  • hydrolysis-dehydration
  • addition-subtraction-exchange
  • ligation
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32
Q

transfer electrons from one molecule to another

A

oxidation-reduction

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33
Q

combined or separate two molecules losing or gaining water in the process.

A

hydrolysis-dehydration

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34
Q

either adds, subtracts, or exchanges functional groups

A

Addition-subtraction-exchange reactions

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35
Q

join two molecules using enzymes called synthetases and ATP

A

ligation reactions

36
Q

A combination of four nitrogenous bases in triples (codons) code for 20 amino acids

A

genetic code

37
Q

a portion of DNA that codes for a piece of functional RNA

38
Q

are continuously being read and converted to mRNA

A

Constitutive genes

39
Q

are turned on and off as needed

A

regulated genes

40
Q
  • Synthesis of mRNA by copying information from DNA

* happens in nucleus

A

transcription

41
Q
  • Synthesis of protein from the information in mRNA

* happens in cytosol

A

translation

42
Q

what is involved in transcription?

A
  • RNA polymerase
  • promoter
  • transcription factors
  • alternative splicing
43
Q

the enzyme that reads the DNA and makes mRNA (adds nucleotides to the 3’ end of the growing strand)

A

RNA polymerase

44
Q

the region that precedes the gene that must be activated

45
Q

bind to DNA and activate the promoter and tell the RNA polymerase where to bind the DNA

A

transcription factors

46
Q

results in several possible proteins from a single gene

A

alternative splicing

47
Q

What are the steps in transcription?

A
  1. RNA polymerase binds to DNA.
  2. The section of DNA that contains
    the gene unwinds
  3. RNA bases bind to DNA,
    creating a single strand of mRNA
  4. mRNA and the RNA polymerase
    detach from DNA, and the
    mRNA goes to the cytosol after
    processing.
48
Q

what happens during mRNA processing?

A

introns are removed

49
Q

what are the translation components?

A
  • mRNA
  • rRNA
  • tRNA
  • ribosomes
  • amino acids
50
Q

contains the blueprint that is translated to make protein

51
Q

form part of the ribosome

52
Q

anticodons of tRNAs carry amino acids to complimentary codon of ribosomal mRNA

53
Q

what happens in translation?

A
  1. each tRNA molecules attaches at one end to a specific amino acid
  2. the anticodon of the tRNA molecule pairs with the appropriate codon on the mRNA
  3. amino acids are linked in the order specified by the mRNA code
54
Q

what are some post-translational modifications?

A
  • protein folding
  • cross-linkage
  • cleavage
  • addition of other molecules/groups (lipids/sugars)
  • assembly into polymeric proteins, formation of quaternary structure
55
Q

strong bonds between different parts of the protein (S-S)

A

cross linkage

56
Q

removal of small peptide fragments

57
Q

what are the steps of protein synthesis?

A
  1. gene activation
  2. transcription
  3. mRNA processing
  4. translation
  5. post-translational modification
58
Q

what does protein synthesis demonstrate?

A

subcellular compartmentalization

59
Q

has a high energy phosphate bond that stores energy

A

ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

60
Q

requires oxygen and yields the most ATP

A

aerobic metabolism

61
Q

does not use oxygen and yields much less ATP

A

anaerobic metabolism

62
Q

breaking down fuel

63
Q

what do catabolic pathways produce?

64
Q

what are the catabolic pathways?

A
  • glycolysis
  • citric acid cycle
  • electron transport chain
65
Q
  • produce small amounts of ATP directly
  • most important contribution to ATP synthesis are the high energy electrons carried by NADH and FADH2 to the electron transport system
A

glycolysis and citric acid cycle

66
Q

where is the electron transport chain located?

A

mitochondria

67
Q

what is produced in glycolysis?

A 
one molecule
of glucose is converted by a
series of enzymatically
catalyzed reactions into two
pyruvate molecules, producing
a net release of energy
68
Q

does glycolysis require energy?

69
Q

what happens in the citric acid cycle?

A 
1. , each 3-carbon
pyruvate formed during glycolysis reacts with
coenzyme A (CoA) to form one acetyl CoA
and one carbon dioxide (CO2
2. The 2-carbon acyl unit of acetyl CoA 
enters the citric acid cycle pathway,
allowing coenzyme A to recycle and
react with another pyruvate
3. The citric acid cycle makes a
never-ending circle, adding
carbons from acetyl CoA with
each turn of the cycle and
producing ATP, high-energy
electrons, and carbon
dioxide
70
Q

says that potential energy stored by
concentrating H+ in the intermembrane space is used to make the high-energy
bond of ATP.

A

chemiosmotic theory

71
Q

what is the final step in aerobic ATP production?

A

energy transfer from high-energy

electrons of NADH and FADH2 to ATP

72
Q

how is the final step of ATP production carried out?

A

This energy transfer requires mitochondrial
proteins known as the electron transport system (ETS), located in the inner
mitochondrial membrane

73
Q

what proteins does the electron transport system include?

A

include enzymes and iron-containing

cytochromes

74
Q

the synthesis of ATP using the electron transport system

A

oxidative phosphorylation

75
Q

requires oxygen to act as the final acceptor of electrons and H+

A

oxidative phosphorylation

76
Q

H+ flow back into the matrix

through this protein

A

ATP synthase

77
Q

how many ATP are produced in the ETS?

A 
Each three H+
that shuttle
through the
ATP synthase
make a
maximum of
one ATP.
78
Q

how much ATP does anaerobic metabolism produce?

A

one glucose metabolized anaerobically yields 2 ATP

79
Q

how much ATP does aerobic metabolism produce?

A

one glucose metabolized aerobically through the citric acid cycle yields 30-32 ATP

80
Q

What is the total result of aerobic metabolism?

A
  • 6 H2O
  • 30-32 ATP
  • 6 CO2
81
Q

how do aerobic and anaerobic metabolism during the citric acid cycle differ?

A
  • anaerobic uses lactate

* aerobic uses pyruvate

82
Q

The sum of all the chemical reactions that take place in the body

A

metabolism

83
Q

breakdown biomolecules releasing energy in the process

A

catabolism

84
Q

energy utilizing reactions that synthesize a biomolecule

85
Q

what are molecules in pathways?

A
  • intermediates

* The product of one reaction becomes the substrate of another

86
Q

What is involved in the cell regulation of metabolic pathways?

A
  1. controlling enzyme concentrations
  2. producing modulators that change reaction rates
    • feedback inhibition
  3. using different enzymes to catalyze reversible reactions
  4. compartmentalizing enzymes within organelles
  5. maintaining optimum ratios of ATP to ADP
87
Q

what do reversible reactions that require two enzymes allow for?

A

allow for more control over the reaction

Human physiology (17 decks)

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