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A&P > CHAPTER 4 > Flashcards

CHAPTER 4 Flashcards

1
Q

Cytology

A

study of cells

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2
Q

produces a 2-D image, passes light though specimen

A

light microscope

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3
Q

beam of electrons illuminates specimen, greater magnification and resolution than light microscope

A

electron microscope

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4
Q

transmission electron microscope

A

directs an electron beam through thin-cut sections, get 2-D images

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5
Q

scanning electron microscope

A

directs an electron beam across the surface of specimen; get 3D images

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6
Q

Forms outer, limiting barrier separating internal contents from
external environment

A

plasma membrane

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7
Q

cilia, flagellum, and microvilli are modified extensions of ___

A

plasma membrane

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8
Q

nucleus

A

largest structure in cell, enclosed by nuclear envelope. contains DNA and a nucleolus. contains nucleoplasm

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9
Q

cytoplasm

A

Cellular contents between plasma membrane and nucleus
* Includes: cytosol, organelles, and inclusions

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10
Q

cytosol

A

intracellular fluid

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11
Q

true or false : cytosol has high water content

A

true

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12
Q

true or false? cytosol contains dissolved macromolecules and ions

A

true

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13
Q

organelles

A

complex, organized structure within cells. unique shape and function

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14
Q

2 types of organelles

A

membrane-bound, non-membrane-bound

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15
Q

membrane-bound organelle

A

enclosed by a membrane, separates contents from cytosol

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16
Q

Which organelles are membrane-bound?

A

endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria

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17
Q

Which organelles are non-membrane bound?

A

ribosomes, cytoskeleton, centrosome, proteasomes

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18
Q

inclusions

A

cytosol stores temporarily. not considered organelles. molecules are added and removed continuously.

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19
Q

3 examples of inclusions

A

pigments, glycogen, triglycerides

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20
Q

fluid mixture composed of equal parts lipid and protein by weight

A

plasma membrane

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21
Q

lipids found in plasma membranes

A

phospholipid, cholesterol. glycolipid

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22
Q

True or false? plasma membranes regulate movement of most substances in and out of cell

A

true

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23
Q

describe the structure of a phospholipid

A

“Balloon with 2 tails”. polar and hydrophilic “head” ; 2 nonpolar and hydrophobic “tails”

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24
Q

ensures that cytosol stays inside the cell, and interstitial fluid remains outside the cell

A

phospholipid bilayer

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25
Q

describe the structure of cholesterol

A

4-ring lipid molecule scattered within phospholipid bilayer. strengthens membrane. stabilizes membrane against temperature extremes

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26
Q

describe the structure of glycolipids

A

lipids with attached carbohydrate groups. located on outer phospholipid region only. helps form glycocalyx

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27
Q

2 structural types of membrane proteins

A

integral, peripheral

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28
Q

half of plasma membrane by weight, float and move in fluid bilayer, performs most of membrane’s functions

A

membrane proteins

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29
Q

describe the structure of integral proteins

A

embedded within, and extend across phospholipid bilayer. hydrophobic regions interact with hydrophobic interior
* Hydrophilic regions are exposed to aqueous environments
on either side of membrane
* Many are glycoproteins with attached carbohydrate
groups

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30
Q

Not embedded in lipid bilayer
* Loosely attached to external or interior surfaces of
membrane

A

Peripheral proteins

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31
Q

Transport proteins

A

Regulate movement of substances across membrane
* For example, channels, carrier proteins, pumps, symporters, and
antiporters

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32
Q

Cell surface receptors

A

Bind molecules called ligands
* For example, neurotransmitters released from a nerve cell that
binds to a muscle cell to initiate contraction

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33
Q

Identity markers

A

Communicate to other cells that they belong to the body
* These markers are used to distinguish healthy cells from cells to be
destroyed

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34
Q

May be attached to either internal or external surface of a cell
* Catalyze chemical reactions

A

enzymes

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35
Q

Secure cytoskeleton to plasma membrane

A

anchoring sites

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36
Q

Cell-adhesion proteins

A

perform cell-to-cell attachments

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37
Q

Process of obtaining and eliminating substance across the
plasma membrane

A

membrane transport

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38
Q

2 categories of membrane transport

A

passive, active

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39
Q

Passive processes of membrane transport

A

do not require energy, depnd on substances moving down concentration gradient

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40
Q

active process of membrane transport

A

require enrgy, substance must be moved up its concentration gradient (active transport) membrane-bound vesicle must be released (vesicular transport)

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41
Q

Net movement of ions or molecules from area of greater
concentration to area of lesser concentration

A

Diffusion

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42
Q

If unopposed, diffusion continues until substance reaches

A

equilibrium

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43
Q

True or false? simple diffusion is not regulated by a plasma membrane.

A

true

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44
Q

2 types of facilitated diffusion

A

channel-mediated, carrier-mediated

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45
Q

movement of small ions through water-filled protein channels

A

channel-mediated diffusion

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46
Q

true or false: channels are specific for one ion type

A

true

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47
Q

leak channel vs gated channel

A

leak channel= continuously open. gated channel= continuously closed and only opens in response to stimuli for a fraction of a second

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48
Q

uniporter

A

carrier transporting only one substance

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49
Q

what determines the max rate of substance transport?

A

the number of channels and carriers

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50
Q

In carrier-mediated diffusion, small polar molecules are assisted across membranes by

A

carrier proteins

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51
Q

true or false? osmosis is the movement of solutes.

A

false. osmosis is the movement of water

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52
Q

Osmosis involves passive movement of water through

A

semipermeable membrane

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53
Q

true or false : membranes are selectively permeable

A

true

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54
Q

aquaporin

A

water channel

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55
Q

osmotic pressure

A

pressure exerted by movement of water across semipermeable membrane

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56
Q

steeper gradient = ____ osmotic pressure

A

greater

57
Q

hydrostatic pressure

A

pressure exerted by a fluid on the inside wall of its container

58
Q

Tonicity

A

ability of a solution to change the volume or pressure of a cell by osmosis

59
Q

isotonic solution

A

both cytosol and solution have same relative concentration of solutes

60
Q

Normal saline is a good example of isotonic solution.

A

true

61
Q

hypotonic solution

A

solution has a lower concentration of solutes, higher concentration of water than in cytosol

62
Q

–

A

–

63
Q

hemolysis

A

rupturing erythrocytes

64
Q

hypertonic solution

A

solution with a higher concentration of solutes than cytosol

65
Q

crenation

A

cell shrinkage

66
Q

true or false? active transport uses energy directly from breakdown of ATP

A

true.

67
Q

breakdown of ATP results in phosphate group added to transport protein. this is referred to as

A

phosphorylation

68
Q

true or false? phosphyloration changes a protein’s shape and results inmovement of substances across the membrane

A

true.

68
Q

ion pumps

A

cellular protein pump that moves ions across membranes

68
Q

true or false? ion pumps maintain internal concentrations of ions

A

true

69
Q

Sodium-potassium (Na/K) pump

A

ype of exchange pump
* Moves one type of ion into cell against gradient, while
moving another type of ion out of cell against gradient
* Plasma membrane preserves steep gradient differences
* Continuously exports Na+ out of the cell and moves K into
the cell

70
Q

Secondary active transport

A

Moves substance against concentration gradient

  • Two types:
  • Symport
  • Antiport
71
Q

symport

A

2 substances moved in same direction. this process is called symport secondary active transport

72
Q

antiport

A

2 substances move in opposite directions. process is called antiport secondary active transport.

73
Q

vesicular transport

A

Also called bulk transport

74
Q

exocytosis

A

Large substances secreted from cell

75
Q

Endocytosis

A

cellular uptake of large substances from external environment.

76
Q

Phagocytosis

A

cellular eating. cell engulfs a large particle external to cell

77
Q

large extension formed during phagocytosis

A

pseudopodia

78
Q

pinocytosis

A

cellular drinking

79
Q

receptor-mediated endocytosis

A

uses receptors on plasma membrane to bind molelcules within interstitial fluid and bring the molecules into the cell

80
Q

Cholesterol is bound to

A

low density lipoproteins

81
Q

resting membrane potential

A

electrochemical gradient established and maintained by plasma membranes

82
Q

rough ER (endoplasmic reticulum)

A

production of protein

83
Q

smooth ER

A

has diverse metabolic processes depending on the cell. can synthesize , transport , and store lipids. can metabolize carbohydrate. detoxification of drugs and poisons

84
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

Composed of cisternae, elongated saclike membranous
structures
* Exhibits polarity
* Cis-face
* Proximal to ER
* Trans-face
* Distal from ER
* Functions: modification, packaging, and sorting of proteins
* Formation of secretory vesicles
* Some vesicles become part of plasma membrane
* Others release contents outside cell

85
Q

Lysosomes

A

Small, membranous
sacs
* Contain digestive
enzymes formed by
Golgi
* Participate in digestion
of unneeded
substances
* Digest contents of
endocytosed vesicles
Figure 4.24

86
Q

Peroxisomes

A

Membrane-enclosed sacs,
smaller than lysosomes
Pinched off vesicles from
rough ER
Proteins are incorporated to
serve as their enzymes
Metabolic functions include
* Role in chemical
digestion
* Beta oxidation
* Lipid synthesis

87
Q

What is Tay-sachs disease?

A

when someone lacks the enzyme needed to break down complex membrane lipids. you cannot live long with this disease.

88
Q

Endomembrane system

A

Extensive array of membrane-bound structures
* Includes ER, Golgi apparatus, vesicles, lysosomes,
peroxisomes
* Includes plasma membrane and nuclear envelope
* Connected directly or through vesicles moving between
them
* Provides means of transporting substances within cells

89
Q

Mitochondria

A

Oblong shaped
organelles with double
membrane
* Aerobic cellular
respiration
* Complete digestion of
fuel molecules to
synthesize ATP

90
Q

Ribosomes

A

Contain protein and ribonucleic acid
* Arranged into large and small subunit
* Large subunit with A, P, and E sites
* Made within nucleolus and assembled in cytoplasm
* Bound ribosomes attached to external surface of ER
membrane
* Synthesize proteins for export, become part of plasma membrane,
or serve as enzymes in lysosomes
* Free ribosomes suspended within cytosol
* All other proteins within cell synthesized here

91
Q

Centrosome

A

Pair of perpendicularly oriented cylindrical centrioles
* Surrounded by amorphous protein
* Primary function: organizes microtubules within
cytoskeleton
* Functions in cellular division

92
Q

Proteasomes

A

Large, barrel-shaped protein complexes
* Protein-digesting organelles
* Located in cytosol and cell nucleus
* Degrade cell proteins through ATP-dependent pathway
* For example, damaged proteins, incorrectly folded proteins, proteins
no longer needed
* Proteins marked with ubiquitin tag for disposal
* With age, may be unable to normally remove proteins

93
Q

Cytoskeleton

A

Plays roles in
* Intracellular support
* Organization of organelles
* Cell division
* Movement of materials
* Extends throughout cell interior; anchor proteins in
membrane
* Includes
* Microfilaments
* Intermediate filaments
* Microtubules

94
Q

Microfilaments

A

Smallest components of cytoskeleton
* Actin protein monomers in two twisted filaments
* Functions – maintain cell shape, internal support, cell division

95
Q

Intermediate filaments

A

Intermediate-sized; more rigid than microfilaments
* Functions – structural support, cell junctions

96
Q

Microtubules

A

Largest components of cytoskeleton; composed of tubulin
* May be elongated or shortened as needed
* Functions – maintain shape, cell transport, cell division

97
Q

hair-like projections that move substances along cell surface

A

cilia

98
Q

flagella

A

longer and wider than cilia, provides propulsion

99
Q

microvili

A

extensions of plasma membrane that increase surface area

100
Q

tight junctions

A

strand or rows of proteins lining cells. prevent substances form passing between cells. requires materials to move through, rather than between cells. maintain polarity of epithelia.

101
Q

desmosomes

A

composed of proteins that bind neighboring cells. hemidesmosomes anchor basal layer of cells of epidermis to underlying components

102
Q

gap junctions

A

form tiny, fluid-filled tunnels. provide direct passageway for substances to travel between cells

103
Q

nucelus

A

largest structure in the cell. the control center. cells typically have one nucleus. exceptions include mature erythrocytes which have no nucleus, and skeletal muscle cells that have multiple

104
Q

true or fasle? often the nucleus mirrors the shape of the cell

A

true

105
Q

nuclear envelope

A

double phospholipid membrane enclosing nucleus. externally continuous with rough ER.

106
Q

nuclear pores

A

open passageways formed by proteins. ions and water soluble molecules pass through

107
Q

nucleus

A

dark-staining, spherical body. not membrane bound. composed of protein and RNA. prodcuses small and large ribosome subunits. not present in all cells.

108
Q

4 nitrogenous bases

A

adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine

109
Q

in DNA, nucleotides are linked by

A

phosphodiester bonds

110
Q

what forms the spiral ladder found in DNA?

A

sugar and phosphates form the struts, pairs of nucleotide bases form rungs

111
Q

Each double helix of DNA is wound around nuclear proteins called

A

histones

112
Q

When not dividing, DNA is in the form of

A

chromatin

113
Q

When dividing, DNA is in the form of

A

chromosomes

114
Q

Genes

A

stretches of nucleotides that provide instructions for synthesis of specific proteins

115
Q

transcription

A

copy of a gene formed from Dna in nucleus

116
Q

Translation

A

uses RNA for synthesis of protein by ribosomes in cytosol

117
Q

mitosis

A

cell division in somatic cells (all other than sex cells)

118
Q

meiosis

A

cell division in sex cells

119
Q

Somatic cell division

A

one cell divides into two

120
Q

centrosome

A

pair of cylindrical centrioles. organizes microtubules that facilitate chromosome movement

121
Q

interphase

A

time the cell prepares for division. DNA still in form of chromatin. 3 phases G1, S, G2

122
Q

g1 phase

A

growth and production of new organelles. structures needed for DNA replication formed. Replication of centrioles to produce two pairs of chromosomes

123
Q

S phase

A

DNA is replicated. Requires deoxyribonucleotides and DNA polymerase

124
Q

Steps of DNA replication

A

unwind, break, assemble, restore

125
Q

sister chromatid

A

replicated DNA strand

126
Q

G2 phase

A

brief phase. centriole replication completed. enzymes for cell division synthesized

127
Q

4 phases of mitosis

A

prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

128
Q

prophase

A

first stage of mitosis. spindle fibers (microtubules) grow from centrioles. centrioles are pushed apart to opposite poles.

129
Q

metaphase

A

second stage of mitosis. chromosomes line up on equatorial plate of cell. spindle fibers extend and attach at centromere of each chromosome

130
Q

anaphase

A

3rd stage of mitosis. spindle fibers move sister chromatids apart toward poles. each chromatid now a chromsome of one DNA double helix with its own centromere

131
Q

telophase

A

arrival of group of chromosomes at each pole. begin to uncoil and return to chromatin. new nucleolus formed in each cell. mitotic spindle broken up. end of nuclear division

132
Q

cytokinesis

A

division of cytoplasm between two newly formed cells. may overlap w/ anaphase and telophase. Ring of microfilament proteins at cell periphery
* Pinch mother cell into two separate cells
* Results in a cleavage furrow, two new daughter cells
* After cytokinesis, cell division is complete

133
Q

cell death by 2 mechanisms

A

killed by harmful agents/mechanical damage, apoptosis

134
Q

apoptosis

A

occurs in orderly continuous steps. destroys and removes cellular components and cell remnants. initiated by ligand-receptor signaling

135
Q

Why does programmed cell death (apoptosis) occur?

A

remove harmful cells

136
Q
A

A&P (11 decks)

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