Chapter 37 Flashcards
1
Q
A ____ is any organic or inorganic substance that is required for growth, survival, development, etc..
A
nutrient
2
Q
4 phases of food processing in animal:
A
- ingestion
- digestion
- absorption
- egestion
3
Q
5 categories of organic nutrients:
A
- carbohydrates
- proteins
- lipids
- nucleic acid
- vitamins
4
Q
2 purposes of ingested organic molecules?
A
- energy released to synthesize ATP
2. building blocks for new molecules
5
Q
4 groups of essential nutrients?
which must be obtained in ____
A
obtained in diet in their complete form
- Essential amino acid (9)
- Essential fatty acid (plants)
- Minerals (cofactors, for bone, muscle function)
- vitamins (coenzymes, water vs fat-soluble)
6
Q
[Feeding Habits]
3 ways animals process nutrients:
- ____ consume plants
- ____ consume animal, flesh
- ____ consume both plant & animal
* they can also be ___-feeders, ____feeders, or ___-feeders*
A
- herbivores
- carnivores
- omnivores
* filter, bulk, fluid*
7
Q
Food is digested ___ or ____
Which is the major strategy?
A
intracellularly or extracellularly
*extracellularly *
8
Q
The simplest form of extracellular digestion?
A
Gastrovascular cavity
9
Q
_____ is a long tube w single opening as mouth & anus
A
Gastrovascular cavity
10
Q
____ digestion occurs in simple invertebrates.
____ is used to bring small particles into the cell
A
Intracellular
Phagocytosis
11
Q
The alimentary canal contains 3 components:
- ____ ____helps churn food
- lined by ____ ____ that synthesize & secrete digestive enzymes
- ____ ____ are acidic environment - can be separated & store undigested food
A
- Smooth muscle
- Epithelial Cells
- specialized regions
12
Q
Function of epithelial cell in alimentary canal
A
that synthesize & secrete digestive enzymes and hormones
13
Q
After food is digested, nutrients must be absorbed by ____ (3).
which required transport proteins & energy?
A
- simple diffusion
- facilitated diffusion
- active transport
* both 2,3 need transport protein. But only 3 need energy*
14
Q
What substances can be moved within these?
- simple diffusion
- facilitated diffusion
- active transport
A
1, fatty acids
- organic nutrients
- minerals, nutrients
15
Q
Nutrients in alimentary canal cells are transported into ____ for the rest of the body.
A
BLOOD
16
Q
The vertebrate digestive system consists of ___ (3)
A
- alimentary canal (GI tract)
- accessory glands
- organs
17
Q
Identify the GI tract components
A
onenote
18
Q
[Alimentary canal]
- ___ end: ingest food
- structure:? - ___: storage, initial digestion, absorption
- structure? - __ end: eliminate non-digested waste
- structure?
A
- anterior
- mouth, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus - middle section
- crop, gizzard, stomach, start of small intestine - posterior
- large intestine, end of small intestine
19
Q
[Terrestrial vertebrates]
food stimulates ___ ____ to produce saliva, which contains ____ (3)
A
salivary glands
- proteins
- mucus
- antimicrobial substances
20
Q
What are the functions of saliva?
- for swallowing
- facilitate tase
- kill ___
- initiate ___ digestion with ____
A
- moisten & lubricate food
- dissolve food particles
- ingested bacteria
- carbohydrate - salivary amylase
21
Q
Movement of food through esophagus to organ:
What first move food along the esophagus?
A
Pharynx –> esophagus
Peristalsis
22
Q
Peristalsis is a rhythmic waves of ____ ____ contraction that propel food along the ____
A
smooth muscle - esophagus
23
Q
In some animals, food enters ___ instead moving directly from the esophagus
A
CROP
24
Q
_ 1__ is a storage organ found in most ___ & ____.
- Function of (1)?
A
- CROP - birds and invertebrates
2. store and soften food by water secretion
25
A ___ is a muscular, saclike organ that stores food & helps break up food into smaller pieces
STOMACH
26
In the stomach, there is ___ gland.
| -what does it secrete?
GASTRIC
- Hydrochloric acid and pepsinogen
27
[GASTRIC GLAND]
Function of:
1. HCl (4)
* what controlled HCl production?*
1. Facilitate the conversion of pepsinogen to pepsin
- kills microorganisms
- dissolve food
- unfold proteins
*hormones and nervous system*
28
[GASTRIC GLAND]
Function of:
2. Pepsinogen
* is converted to ____- which is ___
2. pepsin - enzyme that breaks down protein
29
Pepsin and HCl reduce food to ____, a pulpy fluid
CHYME
30
Does absorption occurs in the stomach?
Mostly no
31
In birds the stomach is divided into 2 parts:
[function of each]
1. Proventriculus - secrete acid & enzymes
| 2. Gizzard - grind food into small fragments
32
The glandular portion of the bird's stomach is ?
proventriculus
33
The muscular structure of the bird's stomach is __
Gizzard
34
___ contains tiny stones that act as teeth in birth to grind and ingest food
Gizzard
35
Protein digestion begins in the ___
STOMACH
36
____ is a macromolecule of plant cell walls and important part of the herbivores and omnivores' diets
CELLULOSE
37
_____ has no enzymes to digest cellulose. Instead they have ____ in digestive tract.
Ruminants - microbes
38
Sheep, goats, llamas, cows are called ____
Ruminants
39
Instead of enzymes, ruminants have ____ for cellulose digestion
microbes
40
Ruminants have 3 pouches arising from ____:
ESOPHAGUS
1. Reticulum
2. Omasum
3. Rumen
41
]Function of 3 pouches in Ruminants]
Rumen + Reticulum ?
Omasum?
Rumen + Reticulum : storage + processing sites
Omasum: absorbs water & ions
42
[Ruminants]
The true stomach is called ____.
- secrete ___ & ____
- connects to ___
Abomasum
- acid & protease
- intestines
43
What nutrients are digested and absorbed? (7)
carb, proteins, lipid, nucleic acid, water, vitamin, minerals
44
____ enzymes break macromolecules into ____
Hydrolytic - monomers
45
Enzymes are secrete into ___ or located in ___ of epithelial cells
LUMEN -
membranes
46
The products of digestion are absorbed across _____ cells
epithelial
47
What features of small intestine increase surface area?
1. Mucosa folded
2. Villi extend into lumen
3. Microvilli in the membranes
48
For nutrient transport, each villus contains ___ & ____
capillary & lacteal
49
Chyme arrived in duodenum triggers the release of 2 hormones
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
Secretin
50
Cholecystokinin (CCK) and Secretin are 2 hormones that regulate the ____
pancreas
51
Function of CCK (Cholecystokinin) ?
- stimulate____ to secrete ____ into ____
- stimulate ____ to regulate outflow from pancreatic duct
stimulate pancreas to secrete a mix of digestive enzymes into intestine
stimulate muscular sphincter relaxation
52
Function of Secretin?
-stimulate____ to secrete ____ into ____ ____ to neutralize _____ ____
stimulate pancreas to secrete bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) into small intestine - acidic chyme
53
Carbohydrates are digested by ___ & ____
Amylase & brush border enzymes
54
In omnivores, most ingested carbs are: (3)
omnivores -
starch, cellulose, glycogen
55
Where does digestion of starch and glycogen occur? through what activity?
small intestine
pancreatic amylase
56
What break down disaccharides?
brush border enzymes
57
What 2 types of transport used during absorption of carbohydrates?
Facilitated diffusion & secondary active transport
58
Starch - digested in ___ & ____ only
Fructose: use ___ diffusion
Glucose + galactose: use __
Amino acid: [enter] by ____ ; [exit] by ____
1. mouth & small intestine
2. facilitated
3. secondary active transport coupled with Na+
4. [Enter] secondary active transport
[Exit] facilitated diffusion
59
Pepsin activity cause ____ digestion in the stomach
PROTEIN
60
Trypsin is a ____ enzyme that digest partially protein in chyme
protease
61
What is the protease enzymes in the small intestine?
TRYPSIN
62
Steps of AA broken down
Trypsin --> polypeptide fragments --> amino acid [brush border proteases]
63
____ is the most ingested lipid. Its breakdown occurs entirely in ____ via actions of ____
Triglycerides
small intestine via actions of pancreatic lipase
64
Lipids are ____ soluble in water --> form ____ ___
Lipase is water ____; acts at the surface of lipid droplets
poorly - large droplets
soluble
65
____ increase rate of digestion by increasing fat droplets' exposure to lipase
Emulsification
66
____ emulsifies lipids
BILE
67
what produce bile?
| what store bile?
LIVER
GALLBLADDER
68
which hormones regulate bile secretion?
CCK
69
CCK hormone regulates (2)
1. pancreas
| 2. bile secretion
70
Bile promotes the formation of ____
Micelles
71
Function of micelles
| -allow ___
Allow lipid to diffuse into intestinal cells to incorporated into chylomicrons and enter lacteals
72
[Lipid digestion & absorption]
What are Chylomicrons? and they are released by what?
Chylomicrons enter ____ to be transported to blood
- triglycerides enclosed by Smooth ER coated w water-soluble proteins
- exocytosis
- Lacteals
73
List the steps from formation of chylomicrons to their arrival in blood circulation
[digestion] - Lipase break down triglyceride into FA + monoglycerides + other stuff --> micelles.
FA + monoglyceride diffuse into epithelial cells
[Absorption] Chylomicrons are formed and released by exocytosis from epithelial cells --> lacteals of villi --> lacteals empty into a large vein --> blood circulation
74
Steps in digestion of disaccharides and absorption of monosaccharides
disaccharides break down --> mono absorbed into epithelial cells --> leave by facilitated diffusion --> enter blood stream
75
Function of Large intestine?
absorb remaining water & ions to store and concentrate waste
76
Large intestine are categorized into 3 regions:
| *function of each*
1. Cecum - small pouch w appendix
2. Colon - absorb water & salt + store undigested material
3. Rectum - stores feces prior to defecation
77
2 alternating phases of metabolism of nutrients
Absorptive state and postabsorptive state
78
_____ state occurs when ingested nutrients go from GI tract to blood
____ state occurs when GI tract is empty and animal's own stores must supply energy
Absorptive state
Postabsorptive state
79
Metabolic requirements for animals is greater than human. T or F
T
80
2 ways to increase glucose concentrations in blood stream,
Glycogenolysis
Gluconeogenesis
81
_____ - glycogen --> glucose
_____ - non-carbohydrate sources --> glucose
Glycogenolysis
Gluconeogenesis
82
What is the major precursor for gluconeogenesis ?
GLYCEROL
83
Glycerol is generated when ____ broken down during ____
triglycerides
lipolysis
84
• If the postabsorptive state continues for an extended period of time, what become source for gluconeogenesis?
PROTEINS
85
which systems are involved in the regulation of the concentration of energy-providing molecules?
nervous & endocrine
86
_____ is a hormone made by pancreas that promote transport of ___ from extracellular fluid into cells
INSULIN
glucose
87
The concentration of insulin:
_____ during absorptive state
_____ during postabsorptive state
increases
decrease
88
Insulin signaling lead to increased ___ ____ in the membrane
glucose transporters ( GLUTs)
89
During absorptive state, what regulate the concentration of glucose in blood within normal range ?
INSULIN
90
In absorptive state, blood glucose concentration ____
increases
91
____ detected high blood glucose concentration in absorptive state
Pancreas
92
When pancreas detect high concentration of glucose, what does it do next?
secrete insulin into blood
93
[Absorptive state]
How do blood glucose concentration returns to normal?
Insulin stimulate transportation of glucose from blood into cells
94
concentration of glucose = secretion of insulin. T or F
true
| if glucose decreases = insulin secretion decrease
95
[Post absorptive]
Glucose concentration ____
This stimulate the _____ to produce hormone ____ and neurotransmitter ____
decreases
hypothalamus
GLUCAGON
Norepinephrine
96
What are the two hormones acts on liver when glucose concentration is low?
glucagon and norepinephrine
97
Glucagon and norepinephrine stimulate ____ & ____ to increase glucose level
glycogenolysis ( glycogen --> glucose)
Gluconeogenesis ( Glycerol + AA --> glucose)
98
2 mains nutrients available during exercise are:
glucose + FA
99
how to Increase availability of nutrients for cells during exercise :
Glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in the liver
100
Excretory system function: (2)
1. remove ___
2. regulate ___
remove soluble wastes (CO2 + nitrogenous)
regulate H2O + ion balance
101
Nitrogenous ways have 3 forms:
Ammonia
Urea
Uric acid
102
Metabolic rxn of which nitrogenous wastes require energy investment?
Urea and Uric Acid
103
Urea vs Uric Acid. which require higher energy investment
Uric acid
104
Which nitrogenous waste is excreted as semi-solid material
uric acid
105
4 processes in the excretory system
1. filtration
2. reabsorption
3. secretion
4. excretion
106
Invertebrates remove soluble wastes from their body fluids by ____ & ____
filtration
| secretion
107
Formation of urine in metanephridia of annelids:
1. Nephrostomes collect coelomic fluid
2. Sodium + cl ions are reabsorbed from tubules into capillaries
3. Nitrogenous wastes are excreted in a dilute urine from nephridiopores
108
How is insect's excretory system is different from other invertebrates
secretion rather than filtration
109
Excretory organs in:
1. Annelids
2. Insects
3. Vertebrates
1. metanephridia
2. malpighian tubules
3. kidneys
110
[Insects excretory system]
1. ions and ___ ___ actively transport into tubule lumen from ___
2. fluid move to ___, where ions and water are reabsorbed into hemolymph
3. wastes ____
1. uric acid
2. intestine (hindgut)
3. wastes excreted w feces
111
Kidneys function by ____
filtration
112
Metanephridia -
Kidneys -
Malpighian tubules -
Filtration
Filtration
Secretion
113
The urinary system is a part of ____ system
excretory
114
The urinary system includes: (4)
kidneys
ureters
urinary bladder
urethra
115
Kidney has 2 portion: - function of each
renal cortex - filtration
| renal medulla - reabsorption
116
Function unit of kidneys are _____
nephrons
117
Filtration occurs in the ____
| Reabsorption & secretion occur in the _____
corpuscle
renal tubule
118
The renal corpuscle contains 2 structure:
1. capillary
2. membrane
Glomerulus
| Bowman's capsule
119
In nephron, filtration begins as blood flow through _____
glomerulus
120
What is glomerulus? where is it located
group of capillaries in nephron inside kidneys
121
Direction of filtrate flow in nephron (5) - details
1. renal corpuscle ( glomerulus & bowman's capsule)
* Blood enter glomerulus via afferent arteriole & exit via efferent arteriole *
* 20% of plasma filters into Bowman's capsule*
2. proximal tubule
* reabsorbed solutes and organic nutrients*
3. loop of henle
a. descending limb: permeable to water
b. ascending limb: permeable to ions
4. distal tubule
5. collecting duct
122
Tubules are surrounded by ____ that carry away reabsorbed materials
capillaries
123
Blood enters glomerulus via ____ ____ and exits via _____ ____
afferent
efferent arteriole
124
What does it mean by glomerular capillaries are fenestrated?
have pores to increase rate of filtration
125
What cover glomerular capillaries and influence filtration?
Does it allow movement of large or small solutes?
Podocytes
small solutes
126
when 20% of plasma filters into Bowman's capsule, what remain in the bloodstream
proteins and blood
127
GFR is ____
rate of filtrate production
128
How to regulate rate of filtration production (GFR)
changing diameter of afferent arteriole
129
Changing diameter of the afferent arteriole will
1. ____ urine formation to excrete excess water
2. ____ urine in response to dehydration or blood loss
1. increase
| 2. decrease
130
Where in the nephron do useful solutes are absorbed from filtrate?
Proximal tubule
131
[Proximal tubule]
water & solutes enter ___ capillaries and return to blood
peritubular
132
[loop of Henle]
In descending limb, what is and is not permeable ?
In ascending limb, what is and is not permeable
water, not to Na & Cl
opposite
133
[Loop of Henle]
What drives the osmotic movement of water?
ion movement out of ascending limb ==> increase concentration gradient from cortex to medulla
134
Countercurrent multiplication system
| ex
energy is used during active transport of ions to increase gradient
(concentration gradient that caused by ion movement and concentration gradient)
135
One example of countercurrent exchange system in Loop of Henle
ion movemnet out of the ascending limb causing the concentration gradient to increase from cortex to medulla. This drives the osmotic movement of water
136
LOOP OF HENLE DETAIL
ONENOTE
137
[Filtrate along the loop of Henle]
Filtrate becomes ____ concentrated as water diffused ____ the water-permeable descending limb of the loop of Henle
more concentrated
out of
138
The transportation of Na+ and Cl- diffuse out of the filtrate make the filtrate become ____ dilute
MORE
139
The amounts of water and ions ____ when filtrate enter ____ tube of loop of henle
decrease
distal tubule
139
The amounts of water and ions ____ when filtrate enter ____ tubule of loop of henle
decrease
distal tubule
140
collecting duct is permeable to ____ but not to ____
water, not to ions
141
Water diffused out of the _____ limb
Ions diffused out of the ____ limb
Urea & water diffused out of the ____
descending limb
ascending limb
collecting duct
142
The concentrations of ions in urine are fine-tuned in ____ & ___
distal tubule
cortical collecting duct
143
Function of Aldosterone
1. regulate Na+ & K+ levels by stimulating Na+ reabsorption & K+ secretion
144
Aldosterone regulate Na+ & K+ levels by
___ absorption
___ secretion
Na+ absorption
K+ secretion
145
Useful solutes that are reabsorbed from the filtrate in the proximal tubule.
Ca2+, Na+, K+, Cl-, HCO3-
146
From the ___ ____ water & solutes enter ____ ____ and return to blood
interstitial fluid
| peritubular capilaries
147
Aldosterone stimulated ion movements which leads to ____
osmotic reabsorption of water
148
The permeability of the Epithelial cells of collecting ducts can be regulated by ___
animal's requirement for retaining or excreting water
149
ADH (antidiuretic hormone) acts to ___ in epithelial cell membranes
increase number of aquaporins
150
High ADH = ____ water absorption = ___ volume of urine
MORE
| Decrease
151
ADH increases during ____
dehydration
