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Biology 1130 > Chapter 33; power point > Flashcards

Chapter 33; power point Flashcards

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1
Q

All animals besides sponges have some type of _____

A

symmetry

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2
Q

All animals besides sponges have what three things?

A

Symmetry, tissues, and size and metabolism

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3
Q

What are the two main types of symmetry?

A

Radial and bilateral

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4
Q

What is radial symmetry?

A

Body parts are arranged around central axis; Can be bisected into two equal halves in any 2-D plane

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5
Q

What is bilateral symmetry?

A

Body has right and left halves that are mirror images; Only the sagittal plane bisects the animal into two equal halves

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6
Q

What are all animals besides sponges called?

A

Eumetazoa

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7
Q

What are sponges called?

A

Parazoa

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8
Q

What does a sagittal plane do?

A

Divides the body into left and right portions

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9
Q

What does a midsagittal plane do?

A

Divides the body exactly in the middle, making two equal right and left halves.

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10
Q

What does a frontal plane/ coronal plane do?

A

Divides the body into front and back

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11
Q

What does a transverse/ horizontal plane do? What is it sometimes called?

A

Divides the animal into upper and lower portions. This is sometimes called a cross section, and, if the transverse cut is at an angle, it is called an oblique plane.

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12
Q

Small, unicellular organisms get nutrients through what?

A

Diffusion

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13
Q

Cell size is constrained by what?

A

Surface area-to-volume ratio

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14
Q

Define basal metabolic rate

A

Average amount of energy used by an organism in a non-active state

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15
Q

Excess energy is given off as ___

A

heat

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16
Q

Do smaller or larger endothermic animals have a higher BMR?

A

Smaller

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17
Q

Do active or inactive animals have a higher BMR?

A

Active

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18
Q

Energy from nutrients is used in the animal body to fuel what?

A

Anabolic reactions

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19
Q

A tissue consists of what?

A

A group of closely associated, similar cells that carry out specific functions

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20
Q

What are the four main types of animal tissues?

A

Epithelia, connective tissues, muscles, and neurons

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21
Q

What do epithelia tissues do?

A

Line cavities, open spaces, and surfaces

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22
Q

What do connective tissues do?

A

Connect tissues together, provide support

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23
Q

What do muscles do?

A

Generate movement

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24
Q

What do neurons do?

A

Generate and send electrical signals

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25
Q

What are the three types of epithelial cells?

A

Squamous, cuboidal, and columnar

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26
Q

Describe the two surfaces of epithelial tissues

A

One surface is exposed; it covers the body (outer layer of skin) or lines a cavity in a hollow organ, such as the lumen of the intestine. The other surface attaches to underlying tissue by a noncellular basement membrane

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27
Q

What are the three types of arrangements of epithelial cells?

A

Simple, pseudostratified, and stratified

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28
Q

Simple epithelium tissues are usually located where?

A

Where substances are secreted, excreted, absorbed, or diffused

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29
Q

What may epithelium tissues have and why?

A

May have cilia that move materials over the tissue surface

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30
Q

Stratified epithelium has how many layers?

A

Two or more

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31
Q

What does stratified epithelium do?

A

Protects underlying tissues

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32
Q

What is pseudostratified epithelium?

A

Epithelium that appears layered, but not every cell extends to the exposed surface of the tissue

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33
Q

What two things do epithelial cells make up?

A

Glands and membranes

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34
Q

What are glands?

A

One or more epithelial cells that secrete a product such as sweat, milk, mucus, wax, saliva, hormones, or enzymes

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35
Q

What are the two types of glands?

A

Endocrine and exocrine glands

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36
Q

Define exocrine glands and give 2 examples

A

Glands that secrete products onto a free epithelial surface, typically through a duct (Example: goblet cells, sweat glands)

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37
Q

Define endocrine glands and give an example

A

Glands that release hormones into the interstitial fluid or blood (Example: thyroid gland)

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38
Q

Define membranes

A

A sheet of epithelial tissue and a layer of underlying connective tissue

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39
Q

What are the two types of membranes?

A

Mucous membrane and serous membrane

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40
Q

Define mucous membrane

A

Lines a body cavity that opens to the outside of the body

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41
Q

What keeps mucous membrane from dying?

A

Goblet cells secrete mucus that lubricates the tissue and protects it from drying

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42
Q

Define serous membrane

A

It secretes fluid into the body cavity it lines – it consists of simple squamous epithelium over a thin layer of loose connective tissue

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43
Q

Describe connective tissues in detail

A

Cells are embedded in an intercellular substance consisting of threadlike fibers scattered through a matrix of polysaccharides secreted by the cells

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44
Q

What are the seven main types of connective tissues?

A

Loose and dense connective tissues, Elastic connective tissue, Reticular connective tissue, Adipose tissue, Cartilage, Bone; Blood, lymph, and tissues that produce blood cells

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45
Q

What are connective tissue cells called?

A

Fibroblasts

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46
Q

The connective tissue matrix is usually composed of _____ _____

A

ground substance

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47
Q

What is ground substance?

A

Found in connective tissues, usually composed of some combination of collagen, elastic, or reticular fibers

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48
Q

What are the three types of fibers?

A

Collagen, elastic, and reticular

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49
Q

The structure and function of each kind of connective tissue is determined in part by what?

A

By the properties of its intercellular substance

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50
Q

Is the matrix of connective tissues cellular or noncellular?

A

Noncellular

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51
Q

Describe collagen fibers

A

Composed of tough fibrous proteins that remain intact when tissue is stretched

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52
Q

Describe elastic fibers

A

Branch and form networks; composed of elastin; return to original size when stretched

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53
Q

Describe reticular fibers

A

Networks of tissues; Thin, branched fibers consisting of collagen and some glycoprotein

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54
Q

What do fibroblasts do?

A

Produce the fibers, protein and carbohydrate complexes, of the connective tissue matrix

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55
Q

Where are fibroblasts especially active/ important?

A

In developing tissues and important in healing wounds

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56
Q

Describe macrophages

A

The body’s scavenger cells; they wander through connective tissues, cleaning up cell debris, engulfing foreign matter, including bacteria

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57
Q

Describe loose connective tissues

A

Form the subcutaneous layer that attaches skin to muscles and other structures (e.g., nerves) and is a thin filling between body parts and serves as a reservoir for fluid and salts

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58
Q

What serves as a reservoir for fluids and salts?

A

Loose connective tissues

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59
Q

Fibers run in all directions through what?

A

The semifluid matrix of loose connective tissues

60
Q

Describe dense connective tissues

A

Found in the lower layer of the skin, it’s strong, but less flexible than loose connective tissue, and collagen fibers predominate

61
Q

Collagen fibers predominate in what kind of connective tissue?

A

Dense connective tissues

62
Q

What two things consist of dense connective tissue in a definite pattern?

A

Tendons and ligaments

63
Q

What type of tissue is found in the lower layer of the skin?

A

Dense connective tissues

64
Q

What is elastic connective tissue mainly composed of?

A

Consists mainly of bundles of parallel elastic fibers

65
Q

Where is elastic connective tissue found?

A

Found in structures that must expand and then return to their original size, such as lung tissue and the walls of large arteries

66
Q

What is reticular connective tissue mainly composed of?

A

Interlacing reticular fibers

67
Q

What does reticular connective tissue do and where is it found?

A

Forms a supporting internal framework in many organs, including the liver, spleen, and lymph nodes

68
Q

What does adipose connective tissue do?

A

Stores fat and release it when fuel is needed for cellular respiration

69
Q

Where is adipose connective tissue found?

A

In the subcutaneous layer and in tissue that cushions internal organs

70
Q

Describe cartilage (connective tissue).

A

Firm elastic tissue consisting of chondrocytes that lie in small cavities in lacunae and secrete a hard, rubbery matrix and collagen fibers.

71
Q

Where is cartilage found in all vertebrates?

A

It supports the skeleton in embryonic stages of all vertebrates

72
Q

What body parts is cartilage found in humans?

A

The external ear, the tip of the nose, walls of respirator passages, the ends of some bones, and vertebral disks

73
Q

What is the main vertebrate skeletal tissue?

A

Bone

74
Q

What does bone (a connective tissue) mostly consist of?

A

Consists mostly of calcium salts and collagen secreted by osteocytes

75
Q

What’s an example of a highly vascular tissue with a blood supply?

A

Bone

76
Q

What do canaliculi contain and why?

A

Canaliculi contain cytoplasmic extensions for communication between osteocytes (bone cells)

77
Q

What type of bone is on the outside and what type is on the inside?

A

Compact bone surrounds spongy bone

78
Q

Describe bone

A

A large, central marrow cavity contains yellow marrow (fat) and red marrow that produces blood cells

79
Q

What produces blood cells?

A

Red bone marrow

80
Q

Blood vessels and nerves run through what inside bone?

A

Through the Haversian canal within each osteon of compact bone.

81
Q

Describe the bone matrix

A

Rigid and hard

82
Q

How do osteocytes communicate with each other?

A

They communicate with one another by way of cytoplasmic extensions that extend through tiny canals (because they’re trapped in lacunae).

83
Q

Osteocytes become trapped within ____

A

lacunae

84
Q

What type of tissue is bone?

A

Connective

85
Q

What does blood (a connective tissue) consist of?

A

Non-cellular plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets

86
Q

What is the purpose of non-cellular plasma in the blood?

A

Water, proteins, salts, and soluble chemical messengers

87
Q

What is the purpose of red blood cells?

A

Oxygen transport

88
Q

What is the purpose of white blood cells?

A

Defense

89
Q

What is the purpose of platelets in the blood?

A

Clotting

90
Q

What enables movement?

A

The contraction of muscle cells

91
Q

What are muscle fibers? Why are they called that?

A

Long, cylindrical or spindle-shaped muscle cells. They’re called muscle fibers because of their length

92
Q

What is within each muscle fiber?

A

Many thin, parallel contractile units (myofibrils) consisting of myosin and actin proteins

93
Q

What are the three types of muscle tissue?

A

Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth

94
Q

Describe skeletal muscle

A

Voluntary and striated

95
Q

Describe cardiac muscle

A

Involuntary and not striated

96
Q

Describe smooth muscle

A

Involuntary, striated, and intercalated disks

97
Q

What is skeletal muscle?

A

Large muscle masses that are attached to bones of the body and move body parts

98
Q

Describe skeletal muscle fibers

A

Long, with many nuclei

99
Q

Describe the contraction of skeletal muscle

A

Has alternating light and dark transverse stripes (striations) that change relative sizes during contraction. Striated fibers contract rapidly but must relax and rest momentarily before contracting again

100
Q

What is the main tissue of the heart?

A

Cardiac muscle

101
Q

Describe cardiac muscle fibers

A

Each fiber has one or two nuclei, each fiber has striations, and they have specialized junctions where the fibers join

102
Q

Describe the structure of cardiac muscle fibers

A

They join end to end, branch and rejoin to form complex networks

103
Q

Where is smooth muscle found?

A

In the walls of the digestive tract, uterus, blood vessels, and many other hollow internal organs

104
Q

Describe smooth muscle fibers

A

Each spindle-shaped fiber contains a single, central nucleus. They are not striated!

105
Q

Give an example of smooth muscle cells in action

A

Example: When smooth muscle in the walls of arterioles contracts, the vessels constrict, raising blood pressure

106
Q

What two things make up nervous tissues?

A

Neurons and glial cells

107
Q

What do neurons do?

A

Some receive and transmit signals, others relay, process, and store information; some neurons transmit signals from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

108
Q

What do glial cells do?

A

Support and nourish the neurons, destroy pathogens, and modulate transmission of impulses

109
Q

What are the two cytoplasmic extensions of neurons?

A

Dendrites and a single axon

110
Q

What do neurons consist of?

A

A cell body that contains a nucleus, dendrites, and an axon

111
Q

What do dendrites do?

A

Receive and transmit signals to the cell body

112
Q

What does an axon do?

A

It transmits signals away from the cell body

113
Q

Where do neurons communicate?

A

At junctions called synapses

114
Q

What makes up a nerve?

A

Many neurons bound together by connective tissue

115
Q

What makes up an organ system?

A

An organized group of tissues and organs that perform a specialized set of functions

116
Q

How many organ systems do humans have?

A

11 major organ systems that work together to carry out physiological processes

117
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

A dynamic equilibrium in which conditions are maintained within narrow limits (in a steady state) by homeostatic mechanisms

118
Q

What can challenge homeostasis?

A

Changes in the environment that affect normal conditions within the body, or stressors, continuously challenge homeostasis

119
Q

Homeostasis aims to keep internal conditions around a ________

A

set point

120
Q

What is it called when an organism’s homeostatic set point changes?

A

Alteration

121
Q

What is acclimatization?

A

Changes in one organ system to maintain a set point in another organ system (ex: altitude)

122
Q

What is alteration?

A

When an organism’s homeostatic set point changes

123
Q

What are the two categories of ways organisms maintain homeostasis?

A

Conformers vs regulators

124
Q

Describe conformers and give an example

A

Conformers vary some of their internal states with their surroundings; for example most marine invertebrates conform to the salinity of the surrounding sea water

125
Q

Describe regulators and give an example

A

Regulators (such as mammals) have complex homeostatic mechanisms that maintain relatively constant internal conditions despite changes in the outside environment

126
Q

Define positive feedback loop

A

Maintains and possibly strengthens a response to a stimulus

127
Q

Give a good example and a bad example of positive feedback loops

A

Oxytocin during labor (good) and blood pressure drops with hemorrhage (bad)

128
Q

What is a negative feedback loop?

A

Counteracts any internal changes (reverses the direction of the change)

129
Q

What are examples of negative feedback loops?

A

Temperature, glucose, pH, and blood calcium

130
Q

Describe the negative feedback loop of glucose

A

The response of the integrator is opposite to the input of the sensor, so if the glucose concentration
in the blood is too low, alpha cells in the pancreas secrete a hormone that increases glucose concentration.

131
Q

What is thermoregulation?

A

The process of maintaining body temperature within certain limits despite changes in the surrounding temperature

132
Q

What is estivation?

A

A state of torpor caused by lack of food or water during periods of high temperature

133
Q

What is hibernation and how do animals survive it?

A

Hibernation is a long-term torpor in response to winter cold and scarcity of food, and animals store unsaturated fats to use as energy sources

134
Q

What is torpor? When does it happen and why?

A

It’s a short-term state in which metabolic rate decreases, it occurs in many small endotherms when stressed by cold, and it saves the energy that the animal would use to maintain a high body temperature

135
Q

What is acclimatization? What’s an example?

A

When animals adjust to seasonal changes. Example: thickening of a dog’s coat in winter

136
Q

Where are temperature receptors located?

A

Receptors located in the hypothalamus and in the spinal cord regulate temperature

137
Q

How do temperature receptors produce heat and coldness?

A

Produce heat: hormones, muscle contraction, or shivering. Lower temperature: panting; dilation of skin capillaries, and sweating

138
Q

What are the physiological mechanisms of endotherms?

A

Physiological mechanisms: the regulation of heat production and heat exchange with the environment

139
Q

What are endotherms?

A

Birds and mammals with homeostatic mechanisms that maintain body temperature despite changes in the external temperature

140
Q

What is an advantage to being an endotherm?

A

High metabolic rate, which allows rapid enzyme activity and responses to stimuli

141
Q

What’s a disadvantage to being an endotherm?

A

High energy cost of thermoregulation during inactive periods

142
Q

What’s a structural adaptation of endotherms? Examples

A

Insulation, like insulating feathers of birds, hair of mammals, and insulating layers of fat

143
Q

What’s are examples of behavioral adaptations of endotherms?

A

Like squirrels shading their bodies with their tails; elephants spray themselves with water

144
Q

What are ectotherms?

A

Animals that depend on the environment for their body heat; body temperature is determined mainly by the changing temperature of their surroundings

145
Q

What are the advantages of ectotherms?

A

Very little energy is used to maintain a high metabolic rate

146
Q

What are the disadvantages of ectotherms?

A

Daily and seasonal temperature conditions may limit activity

147
Q

What are the behavioral advantages of ectotherms?

A

Many ectotherms use behavioral strategies to adjust body temperature; others migrate to warmer climates during the winter, or hibernate

Biology 1130 (12 decks)

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