Chapter 3 Vocab

Question 1

a substance produced inside the body

Answer 1

Endogenous

Chapter 3 (p82-83)

Question 2

substances arising from outside the body

Answer 2

Exogenous

Chapter 3 (p82-83)

Question 3

referring to the “transmitting” side of a synapse

Answer 3

Presynaptic

Chapter 3.1 (p84-85)

Question 4

cellular location at which information is transmitted from a neuron to another cell

Answer 4

Synapse

Chapter 3.1 (p84-85)

Question 5

a specialized protein that is imbedded in the cell membrane, allowing it to selectively sense and react to molecules of a corresponding neurotransmitter or drug

Answer 5

Neurotransmitter

Chapter 3.1 (p84-85)

Question 6

a specialized protein that is embedded in the cell membrane, allowing it to selectively sense and react to molecules of a corresponding neurotransmitter or drug

Answer 6

Neurotransmitter receptors

Chapter 3.1 (p84-85)

Question 7

referring to the region of a synapse that receives and responds to neurotransmitter

Answer 7

Postsynaptic

Chapter 3.1 (p84-85)

Question 8

process by which vesicles release their cargo of molecules of neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft

Answer 8

Exocytosis

Chapter 3.1 (p84-85)

Question 9

reabosorption of molecules of neurotransmitter by the neurons that released them, thereby ending the signaling activity of the transmitter molecules

Answer 9

Reuptake

Chapter 3.1 (p84-85)

Question 10

a specialized membrane component that returns transmitter molecules to the presynaptic neuron for reuse

Answer 10

transporters

Chapter 3.1 (p84-85)

Question 11

a receptor protein containing an ion channel that opens when the receptor is bound by an agonist

Answer 11

Ionotropic Receptor (also called a ligand-gated ion channel)

Chapter 3.1 (p85-86)

Question 12

a type of synapse that, when active, causes a local depolarization that increases the likelihood the neuron will fire an action potential

Answer 12

Excitatory Synapse

Chapter 3.1 (p85-86)

Question 13

a type of synapse that, when active, causes a local hyperpolarization that decreases the likelihood the neuron will fire an action potential

Answer 13

Inhibitory Synapse

Chapter 3.1 (p85-86)

Question 14

receptor protein that does not contain ion channels but may, when activated, use a second-messenger system to open nearby ion channels or to produce other cellular effects

Answer 14

metabotropic receptors
(involves G proteins and second messengers)

Chapter 3.1 (p86)

Question 15

any type of receptor having functional characteristics that distinguish it from other types of receptors of the same neurotransmitter

Answer 15

receptor subtypes

Note: there are at least 15 different subtypes of serotonin receptors

Chapter 3.1 (p86)

Question 16

a type of receptor that, when activated extracellularly, initiates a G protein signaling mechanism inside the cell

Answer 16

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs)

Chapter 3.1 (p86)

Question 17

first neurotransmitter to be discovered

Answer 17

Acetylcholine

Chapter 3.1 (p87)

Question 18

• frog heart experiment to determine whether transmission of message was electrical or chemical (soups v sparks)
• vagus nerve uses a chemical neurotransmitter, not a direct electrical connection, to communicate to cells of the heart and cause it to slow down (chemical neurotransmission)
• discoverer of the 1st neurotransmitter

Answer 18

Otto Loewi

Chapter 3.1 (p87)

Question 19

List the qualifications a substance must meet to be considered a neurotransmitter.

5

Answer 19

• it can be synthesized by presynaptic neurons and stored in axon terminals
• it is released when action potentials reach the terminals
• it is recognized by specific receptors located on the postsynaptic membrane
• is causes changes in the postsynaptic cell
• blocking its release interferes with the ability of the presynaptic cell to affect the postsynaptic cell

3.2 (pH15)

Question 20

A neurotransmitter that is an amino acid.

Examples: GABA, glycine, and glutamate

a neurotransmitter family/subfamily type

Answer 20

Amino acid neurotransmitters

Compare to: amine NTs, gas NTs, and peptide NTs

3.2(p.H15-89)

Question 21

a neurotransmitter consisting of a short chain of amino acids

Examples: oxytocin, Beta-endorphin, vasopressin

a neurotransmitter family/subfamily type

Answer 21

Peptide neurotransmitters (also called neuropeptides)

Compare to: amine NTs, amino acid NTs, gas NTs

3.2(p.H15-89)

Question 22

short chains of amino acids

Answer 22

Peptides

3.2(pH15-89)

Question 23

a neurotransmitter based on modifications of a single amino acid nucleus

Examples: acetylcholine, serotonin, dopamine

a neurotransmitter family/subfamily type

Answer 23

Amine neurotransmitters

Compare to: amino acid NTs, gas NTs, peptide NTs

3.2(p.H15-89)

Question 24

a neurotransmitter that is a soluble gas. They usually act, in a retrograde fashion, on presynaptic neurons.

Examples: nitric oxide, carbon monoxide

a neurotransmitter family/subfamily type

Answer 24

Gas neurotransmitters

3.2(p.H15-89)

Question 25

an amino acid transmitter, the most common excitatory transmitter

Answer 25

Glutamate

3.2(p.H15-90)

Question 26

a widely distributed amino acid transmitter, the main inhibitory transmitter in the mammalian nervous system

Answer 26

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

3.2(p.H15-90)

Question 27

Drugs called benzodiazepines potentially activate receptors for which neurotransmitter?

receptor subtype

Answer 27

GABA-A

3.2(p.H15-90)

Question 28

synthesis and release of more than one type of neurotransmitter by a given presynaptic neuron

Answer 28

(neurotransmitter) co-localization

3.2(p.H15-90)

Question 29

Name four classic neurotransmitters for moderating brain activity:

Answer 29

Acetylcholine, Dopamine, Serotonin, Norepinepherine

Note: Acetylcholine and amine transmitters have been tied to patterns of behavior and pathology, so these transmitter systems are major targets for drug development.

3.2(p90)

Question 30

Basal forebrain to cortex, amygdala, and hippocampus

a neurotransmitter system/pathway

Answer 30

Cholinergic System

3.2(p90)

Question 31

Includes two main pathways:
- Mesolimbocortical pathway: ventral tegmental area (VTA) to nucleus accumbens and cortex
- Mesostriatal pathway: substantia nigra to basal ganglia

a neurotransmitter system/pathway

Answer 31

Dopaminergic System

3.2(p90)

Question 32

Includes pathways:
- locus coeruleus to forebrain
- lateral tegmental area to brainstem and spinal cord

a neurotransmitter system/pathway

Answer 32

Noradrenergic System

3.2(p90)

Question 33

Midbrain raphe nuclei to forebrain; brainstem raphe nuclei to spinal cord

a neurotransmitter system/pathway

Answer 33

Serotonergic System

3.2(p90)

Question 34

Dopaminergic pathway that projects to various locations in limbic system and cortex.

ventral tegmental area (VTA) to nucleus accumbens and cortex

Especially important for processing reward and likely where feelings of pleasure arise. Important for learning, shaped by positive reinforcement.

Abnormalities in this pathway are associated with some symptoms of schizophrenia

Answer 34

Mesolimbocortical system

in Dopaminergic system

3.2(p90)

Question 35

Dopaminergic pathway that originates in midbrain (mesencephalin) around substantia nigra and projects axons to basal ganglia (striatum).

Only hundreds of 1000s of neurons in this system (but single axon can supply many synapses)

Plays crucial role in motor control.

When people lose many neurons in this pathway, they develop profound movement problems of Parkinson’s disease, including tremors.

A pathway in the dopaminergic system

Answer 35

Mesostriatal pathway

in Dopaminergic system

3.2(p90)

Question 36

List the receptor subtypes and functions for:

Glutamate

Transmitters & Receptor Subtypes

Answer 36

Function(s):
- most abundant of all NTs and most important excitatory transmitter
- This NT’s receptors are crucial for excitatory signals
- NMDA receptors implicated in learning and memory

Known Receptor Subtypes:
- AMPA (ionotropic)
- Kainate (ionotropic)
- NMDA (ionotropic)
- mGluRs (metabotropic)

receptor subtype mGLuRs = metabotropic glutamate receptors

3.2(p.90-91) - Table 3.2

Question 37

List the receptor subtypes and functions for:

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)

Transmitters & Receptor Subtypes

Answer 37

GABA receptors mediate most of brain’s inhibitory activity, balancing excitatory actions of glutamate.

Receptor subtypes:
- GABA-A (ionotropic): inhibitory in many brain regions, reducing excitability and preventing seizure activity
- GABA-B (metabotropic): also inhibitory, but by a different mechanism

3.2(p.90-91) - Table 3.2

Question 38

List the receptor subtypes and functions for:

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Transmitters & Receptor Subtypes

Answer 38

Both types of ACh receptors are involved in cholinergic transmission in the cortex.

Receptor subtypes:
- muscarinic receptors (metabotropic)
- nicotine receptors (ionotropic): crucial for muscle contraction

3.2(p.90-91) - Table 3.2

Question 39

List the receptor subtypes and functions for:

Norepinephrine (NE)

Transmitters & Receptor Subtypes

Answer 39

NE has multiple effects in visceral organs, important in sympathetic nervous system and fight-or-flight responses. In the brain, NE transmission provides an alerting and arousing function.

Receptor subtypes:
- a1, a2, B1, B2, and B3 receptors (all metabotrophic)

not actually “a” and “b.” a refers to alpha and b refers to beta.

3.2(p.90-91) - Table 3.2

Question 40

List the receptor subtypes and functions for:

Dopamine (DA)

Transmitters & Receptor Subtypes

Answer 40

Functions: DA receptors are found throughout the forebrain. They are involved in complex behaviors, including motor function, reward, and higher cognition.

Receptor subtypes:
- D1 through D5 receptors (all metabotropic)

3.2(p.90-91) - Table 3.2

Question 41

List the receptor subtypes and functions for:

Serotonin

Transmitters & Receptor Subtypes

Answer 41

Receptor subtypes/functions:
- 5-HT1 receptor family: has 5 members; different subtypes differ in distribution throughout brain
- 5-HT2 receptor family: has 3 members; may be involved in mood, sleep, and higher cognition
- 5-HT3 through 5-HT7 receptors: 5-HT3 receptors are particularly involved in nausea

All serotonin receptors except for 5-HT3 are metabotropic

3.2(p.90-91) - Table 3.2

Question 42

List the receptor subtypes and functions for:

Miscellaneous Peptides

Transmitters & Receptor Subtypes

Answer 42

There are many specific receptors for peptides such as:
- opiates (delta, kappa, and mu receptors)
- cholecystokinin (CCK)
- neurotensin
- neuropeptide Y (NPY)
- and dozens more (all metabotropic)

Peptide transmitters have many different functions dependent on their anatomical localization. Some important examples include the control of feeding, sexual behaviors, and social functions.

3.2(p.90-91) - Table 3.2

Question 43

Referring to cells that use acetylcholine as their synaptic transmitter.

Widespread loss of these neurons is associated with Alzheimer’s; in rats, disruption of these pathways interferes with learning and memory.

Plays a major role in neurotransmission in forebrain.

Answer 43

cholinergic

3.2(p.91-92)

Question 44

A region, ventral to the basal ganglia, that is the major source of cholinergic projections in the brain and has been implicated in sleep.

Answer 44

basal forebrain

3.2(p.91-92)

Question 45

A monoamine transmitter found in the midbrain–especially the substantia nigra–and it the basal forebrain.

Answer 45

dopamine (DA)

Note: only ~1mil of brain’s 80 billion neurons synthesize DA

3.2(p.91-92)

Question 46

referring to cells that use dopamine as their synaptic transmitter

Answer 46

dopaminergic

3.2(p.91-92)

Question 47

a brainstem structure that innervates the basal ganglia and is a major source of dopaminergic projections

Answer 47

substantia nigra

3.2(p.91-92)

Question 48

a portion of the midbrain that projects dopaminergic fibers to the nucleus accumbens

Answer 48

ventral tegmental area (VTA)

3.2(p.91-92)

Question 49

referring to cells that use serotonin as their synaptic neurotransmitter

this type of neuron is scarce in the brain (only about 200,000)

Answer 49

serotonergic

3.2(p92)

Question 50

a string of nuclei in the midline of the midbrain and brainstem that contain most of the serotonergic neurons of the brain

Answer 50

raphe nuclei

raphe is Latin for “seam”

3.2(p92)

Question 51

A synaptic transmitter that is produced in the raphe nuclei and is active in structures throughout the cerebral hemispheres.

Answer 51

Serotonin

AKA 5-HT

3.2(p92)

Question 52

A synaptic transmitter that is produced in the raphe nuclei and is active in structures throughout the cerebral hemispheres.

Participate in several functions, including mood, vision, sexual behavior, anxiety, sleep, and many other functions.

Answer 52

5-HT

Short for its chemical name, 5-hydroxytryptamine; AKA serotonin

3.2(p92)

Question 53

referring to cells using norepinephrine (noradrenaline) as a neurotransmitter

Answer 53

noradrenergic

3.2(p92)

Question 54

A neurotransmitter active in both the brain and sympathetic nervous system. Participate in control of behaviors ranging from alertness to mood to sexual behavor (and more).

also known as noradrenaline

Answer 54

norepinepherine (NE)

3.2(p92)

Question 55

a small nucleus in the brainstem whose neurons produce norepinephrine and modulate large areas of the forebrain

Hint: also known as “the blue spot”

Answer 55

locus coeruleus

compare: substantia nigra

3.2(p92)

Question 56

a region of the brainstem that provides some of the norepinephrine-containing projections of the brain

Answer 56

lateral tegmental area

3.2(p92)

Question 57

a type of endogenous peptide that mimics the effects of morphine in binding to opioid receptors and producing marked analgesia and reward

Answer 57

opioid peptides

Examples include: met-enkephalin, leu-enkephalin, beta-endorphin, dynorphin

3.2(p92)

Question 58

A neurotransmitter that is released by the postsynaptic neuron, diffuses back acorss the synapse, and alters the functioning of presynaptic neuron. (Gas NTs can function as these).

Process may be crucial in memory formation and also functions like hair growth and penile erections.

Answer 58

retrograde transmitters

3.2(p93)

Question 59

How are gas neurotransmitters different from traditional neurotransmitters?

3 ways

Answer 59

• produced in cellular locations other than the axon terminal, especially in the dendrites, and are not held in vesicles; the substance simply diffuses out of the neuron as it is produced
• no receptors in the membrane of the target cell are involved. Instead, gas transmitter diffuses into target cell to trigger the second messengers inside
• gas NTs can function as retrograde transmitters

3.2(p93)

Question 60

one common meaning is “medicine used in the treatment of a disease”

Answer 60

Drug

3.3(p94)

Question 61

compounds that alter brain function and thereby affect conscious experiences

Answer 61

Psychoactive drugs

3.3(p94)

Question 62

psychoactive drugs that are used recreationally, with varying degrees of risk to the useer are soemtimes called:

Answer 62

Drugs of Abuse

3.3(p94)

Answer 63

ligand

3.3(p94)

Answer 64

agonists

3.3(p94)

Answer 65

receptor agonist

3.3(p94)

Answer 66

antagonist

3.3(p94)

Answer 67

receptor antagonist

3.3(p94)

Answer 68

blockers

3.3(p94)

Answer 69

partial agonists

3.3(p94)

Question 70

referring to a substance, usually a drug, that is present in the body in a form that is able to interact with physiological mechanisms

free to act on the tartet tissue, and thus not in use elsewhere or in the process of being eliminated

Answer 70

bioavailability

3.3(p95)

Answer 71

biotransformation

3.3(p95)

Answer 72

pharmacokinetics

3.3(p95)

Answer 73

binding affinity

AKA affinity

3.3(p95)

Answer 74

efficacy

3.3(p95-96)

Answer 75

dose-response curve (DRC)

3.3(p95-96)

Answer 76

effective dose 50% (ED50)

3.3(p96) Figure 3.6 DRC

Answer 77

potency

3.3(p96) Figure 3.6 DRC

Answer 78

therapeutic index

3.3(p96) Figure 3.6 DRC

Answer 79

toxic dose 50% (TD50)

3.3(p96) Figure 3.6 DRC

Answer 80

lethal dose 50% (LD50)

3.3(p96) Figure 3.6 DRC

Answer 81

blood-brain barrier

3.3(p96)

Question 82

Give examples, mechanisms, speed of effects for route of administration.

Ingestion

Answer 82

Forms: tablets, capsules, infusions/teas, suppositories

Examples: Many types of drugs/remedies can be ingested.

Details: Ingestion depends on absorption by the gut, which is somewhat slower than other routs and affected by digestive factors like stomach acidity and whether person has eaten.

Speed of effects: slow to moderate

3.3(p96) - Table 3.3 Routes of Administration

Question 83

Give examples, mechanisms, speed of effects for route of administration.

Inhalation

Answer 83

Forms: smoking; nasal absorption (snorting); inhaled gases, powders, sprays

Examples: nicotine, cocaine, airplane glue and gas (and other organic solvents), various prescription drugs and hormone treatments

Details: inhalation methods take advantage of the rich vascularization of the nose and lungs to convey drugs directly into blood stream

Speed of effects: moderate to fast

3.3(p96) - Table 3.3 Routes of Administration

Question 84

Give examples, mechanisms, speed of effects for route of administration.

Central Injection

Answer 84

Forms:
- intracerebroventricular (into ventricular system)
- intrathecal (into the cerebrospinal fluid of the spine)
- epidural (under the dura mater)
- intracerebral (directly into a brian region)

Examples: morphine for cancer pain (intrathecal); corticosteroid - local anesthetics for pain (epidural)

Details: central methods involve injection directly into the central nervous system and are used in order to circumvent blood-brain barrier, to rule out peripheral effects, or to directly affect discrete brain location.

Speed of effects: fast to very fast

3.3(p96) - Table 3.3 Routes of Administration

Question 85

Give examples, mechanisms, speed of effects for route of administration.

Peripheral Injection

Answer 85

Forms: subcutaneous, intramuscular, intraperitoneal (abdominal), intravenous

Examples: many drugs

Details:
- subcutaneous (under the skin) injections tend to have slowest effects because they may difuse into nearby tissue in order to reach bloodstream
- intravenous injections have rapid effects because drug is placed directly into circulation

Speed of effects: moderate to fast

3.3(p96) - Table 3.3 Routes of Administration

Question 86

condition, in which, with repeated exposure to a drug, and invididual becomes less responsive to a constant dose

(drug’s effectiveness diminishes with repeated treatments)

Answer 86

Drug tolerance

Or just “tolerance”

3.3(p96-97)

Question 87

The form of drug tolerance that arises when repeated exposure to the drug causes the metabolic machinery of the body to become more efficient at clearing the drug.

Answer 87

Metabolic tolerance

Compare to functional tolerance

3.3(p96-97)

Question 88

the form of drug tolerance that arises when repeated exposure to the drug causes receptors to be up-regulated or down-regulated

Answer 88

Functional tolerance

Compare to metabolic tolerance

3.3(p96-97)

Question 89

A compensatory decrease in receptor availability at the synapses of a neuron.

Example: after repeated doses of an agonist drug, neurons by decrease number of receptors available to drug, thereby becoming less sensitive and countering the drug’s effect.

Answer 89

down-regulate

3.3(p96-97)

Question 90

a compensatory increase in receptor availability at the synapses of a neuron

Ex. repeated doses of an antagonist drug might cuase an increase in number of receptors to become more sensitive and counteract the drug effect

Answer 90

up-regulate

3.3(p96-97)

Question 91

What is a key feature of synapses that is crucial for neurotransmission and plasticity?

Hint: involved in developing drug tolerance

Answer 91

continual modification of receptor densities

See up-regulation and down-regulation.

3.3(p96-98)

Question 92

a condition in which the development of tolerance for one drug causes an individual to develop tolerance for another drug

Example: people who have developed a tolerance to heroin tend to exhibit a degree of tolerance to all other drugs in opiate category (codeine, morphine, methadone, etc.) because all these drugs act on the same family of receptors.

Answer 92

cross-tolerance

3.3(p96-98)

Question 93

Main categories of most common presynaptic drug effects:

3 categories

Answer 93

Effects on Transmitter…
- production
- release
- clearance

3.4(pH17)

Question 94

3 ways presynaptic drugs can impact transmitter production

Answer 94

1. Inhibition of transmitter synthesis
2. Blockade of axonal transport
3. Interference with storage of transmitters

3.4(pH17) - Figure 3.7

Question 95

4 ways presynaptic drugs can impact transmitter release

Answer 95

1. prevention of synaptic transmission
2. Alteration of synaptic transmitter release trhough ca2+ (calcium) channel blockade
3. alteration of transmitter release through modulation of presynaptic activity
4. Alteration of synaptic transmitter release through other mechanisms

3.4(pH17) - Figure 3.7

Question 96

4 ways presynaptic drugs can impact transmitter clearance

Answer 96

1. Inactivation of transmitter reuptake
2. Blockade of transmitter degredation

3.4(pH17) - Figure 3.7

Question 97

drugs that block the calcium influx that normally drives release of transmitter into the synapse (interferes with presynaptic cell’s release of neurotransmitter)

Answer 97

calcium channel blocker

3.4(pH17-99)

Question 98

receptor for synaptic transmitter that is located in the presynaptic membrane and tells the axon terminal how much transmitter has been released (kind of a feedback system for the cell)

drugs that stimulate these receptors can provide a false feedback signal, prompting the presynaptic cell to release less transmitter

Example: caffeine blocks an autoreceptor called the adenosine receptor

Answer 98

autoreceptors

3.4(p99-100)

Question 99

a compound found in coffee and other plants that exerts a stimulant action by blocking adenosine receptors

by blocking adenosine receptors, caffeine increases the amount of neurotransmitter release, resulting in enhanced alertness

Answer 99

caffeine

3.4(p99-100)

Question 100

something that potentiates or inhibits transmission of nerve impulse but not the actual means of transportation itself

Ex. Adenosine

Answer 100

neuromodulator

3.4(p99-100)

Question 101

psychiatric drugs that work by blocking the presynaptic system that normally reabsorbs transmitter molecules after their release; this blocking action allows NTs to stay in the synaptic cleft a little longer and, therefore, have a greater impact on postsynaptic cell

Answer 101

reuptake inhibitors

3.4(p99-100)

Question 102

Main categories of most common postsynaptic drug effects:

Answer 102

1. direct effects on neurotransmitter receptors
2. effects on cellular processes within postsynaptic neuron

3.4(p100-101) - Figure 3.8

Question 103

Two ways postsynaptic drugs can effect transmitter receptors:

Answer 103

1. Blockade of receptors
2. Activation of receptors

3.4(p100-101) - Figure 3.8

Question 104

Two ways postsynaptic drugs can effect cellular processes:

Answer 104

1. Alteration of the number of postsynaptic receptors
2. Modulation of second messengers

3.4(p100-101) - Figure 3.8

Question 105

What do selective receptor agonists do?

Answer 105

bind to specific receptors and activate them, mimicking the natural NT at those receptors

ex. LSD stimulates subtype of serotonin receptors (5-HT2A receptors) found in visual cortex - this produces bizarre visual experiences

3.4(p101)

Question 106

drugs to selectively activate, alter, or block targeted genes within DNA of neurons have ——— effects that could produce profound long-term changes in structure and function of neurons;

future research will likely focus on development of these types of drugs

Answer 106

genomic

3.4(p101)

Question 107

an antischizophrenic drug that shows antagonist activity at dopamine D2 receptors

good at relieving positive symptoms of schizophrenia

Answer 107

first-generation antipsychotics

examples: Thorazine, Haldol, Loxitane

AKA neuroleptics or typical antipsychotics

3.5(pH18-102)

Question 108

an antipsychotic drug with primary actions other than or in addition to the dopamine D2 receptor antagonism that characterizes earlier antipsychotics

Answer 108

second-generation antipsychotics

AKA atypical antipsychotic or atypical neuroleptic

3.5(pH18-102)

Question 109

emergent symptoms and behaviors that were previously absent (e.g. hallucinations and delusions)

Answer 109

positive symptoms of schizophrenia

3.5(pH18-102)

Question 110

symptoms that involve impairment or loss of a behavior (e.g., social withdrawal, blunted emotional responses)

Answer 110

negative symptoms of schizophrenia

3.5(pH18-102)

Question 111

psychiatric disorders marked by emotional disruptions (e.g., depression and/or mania)

Answer 111

affective disorders

3.5(p102)

Question 112

drug that relieves symptoms of depression by increasing synaptic transmission.

name 3 categories

Answer 112

antidepressant

3 major categories:
- monoamine oxidase inhibitors
- trycyclics
- selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

3.5(p102)

Question 113

enzyme that breaks down monoamine neurotransmitters, thereby inactivating them

blocks enzyme responsible for breaking down NTs like dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine, allowing them to accumulate in synapses leading to improvement in mood

Answer 113

monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors

3.5(p102)

Question 114

antidepressant that acts by increasing the synaptic accumulation of serotonin and norepinephrine

promote accumulation of NTs in synapse by blocking reuptake of transmitter molecules into the presynaptic terminal

Answer 114

tricyclic antidepressants

3.5(p102)

Question 115

a drug, used to treat depression and anxiety, that blocks the reuptake of transmitter at serotenergic synapses

examples: Prozak, Celexa

Answer 115

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

3.5(p102)

Question 116

any of a class of drugs that promote the synaptic accumulation of serotonin and norepinephrine by blocking transmitter reuptake

Answer 116

serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs)

3.5(p102)

Question 117

a drug that reduces the excitability of neurons

have a strong potential for intoxication and addition

Examples: Alcohol, opium

Answer 117

depressants

3.5(p102)

Question 118

an early anxiolytic and sleep aid that has depressant activity in the nervous system; addictive and easy to overdose on; also used to avoid epileptic seizures

Example: phenobarbital

Answer 118

barbiturate drugs

3.5(p102)

Question 119

substance that is used to reduce anxiety

Examples: alchohol, opiates, barbiturates, benzodiazepines

Answer 119

anxiolytics

i.e., antianxiety drugs

3.5(p102)

Question 120

any class of antianxiety drugs that are noncompetitive agonists of GABAA receptors in the CNS

(enhance GABA effects, because GABA is inhibitory, benzos help GAPA to produce larger inhibitory postsynaptic potentials than it would produce alone. The net effect is a reduction in neuron excitability)

Answer 120

benzodiazepines

Example: Valium, Xanax, Ativan

3.5(p102)

Question 121

extracted from poppies

drugs based on ——— are potent painkillers

Answer 121

opium

Papaver somniferum

3.5(p.103)

Question 122

opiate compound derived from poppy flower

very effective analgesic

Answer 122

morphine

3.5(p.103)

Question 123

an absense of or reduction in pain

Answer 123

analgesic

i.e., painkiller

3.5(p.103)

Question 124

diacetylmorphine, an artifically modified, very potent form of morphine

Answer 124

heroin

3.5(p.103)

Question 125

a receptor that responds to endogenous opioids and/or exogenous opioids (including morphine, heroin, and codeine)

Answer 125

opioid receptors

3.5(p103-104)

Question 126

an area in the midbrain with high density of opioid receptors and, as result, is an area where opiates exert painkilling effects

Answer 126

periaqueductal gray

3.5(p103-104)

Question 127

studies in which radioactive forms of drugs are used to highlight regions showing highest density of receptor binding (warmer colors = more binding)

Findings: drugs belonging to opioid, cannabinoid, and cocaine categories vary in their binding patterns but some brain regions are affected by almost all such substances

Answer 127

radioligand binding studies

3.5(p104) Figure 3.10

Question 128

Per findings from radioligand binding studies, why might opioid, cannabinoid, and cocaine elicit pleasurable experiences?

Answer 128

Many drugs affect cortical sites and almost all will activate mesolimbocortical DA (dopamine) pathway, terminating in basal ganglia

3.5(p104) Figure 3.10

Question 129

any class of opium-like peptide transmitters that have been referred to as the body’s own narcotics

Answer 129

endogenous opioids

3 kinds: enkephalins, endorphins, dynorphins

3.5(p.104)

Question 130

Name 3 major families of endogenous opioids:

Answer 130

1. enkephalins (from the Greek en, “in,” and kephale, “head”)
2. endorphins (a contraction of endogenous morphine)
3. dynorphins (short for dynamic endorphins, in recognition of their potency and speed of action)

3.5(p.104)

Question 131

Name 3 kinds of opioid receptors:

Answer 131

delta, kappa, and mu (all of which are metabotropic)

3.5(p.104)

Question 132

How does Narcan work to rescue people from overdose?

Answer 132

it blocks opioid receptors, which rapidly reverses effects of overdose

3.5(p.104)

Question 133

plant derivation has been used for thousands of years and is typically administered by smoking, vaping, or eating edible products

usually produces pleasant relaxation and mood alteration, though it can occasionally cause stimulation and paranoia

Drugs & Related Stuff

Answer 133

Cannabis

3.6(p.H19-105)

Question 134

The major active ingredient in cannabis, thought to produce the “high” feeling that the drug is known for

Drugs & Related Stuff

Answer 134

delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)

3.6(p.H19-105)

Question 135

One of the two major types of active compounds in cannabis, which appears to have anxiolytic effects as well as other medicinal actions

Drugs & Related Stuff

Answer 135

Cannabidiol (CBD)

Drugs

3.6(p.H19-105)

Question 136

receptor that responds to endogenous and/or exogenous cannabinoids

Answer 136

cannabinoid receptors

3.6(p105-106)

Question 137

Found in: substantia nigra, hippocampus, cerebellar cortex and cerebral cortex

Answer 137

Cannabinoid receptors

3.6(p105-106)

Question 138

an endogenous ligand of cannabinoid receptors, thus an analog of cannabis that is produced by the brain

Answer 138

Endocannabinoids

Drugs

3.6(p105-106)

Question 139

an endogenous substance that binds to the cannabinoid receptor molecule

produces some of the most familiar physio and psychological effects of cannabis use, such as mood improvement, pain relief, lower blood pressure, nausea relief, improvements in glaucoma, etc.

Answer 139

Anandamide

from the Sanskrit ananda, meaning “bliss”

3.6(p105-106)

Question 140

drug that enhances the excitability of neurons, typically producing an overall alerting, activating effect

Answer 140

stimulant

drugs; compare: depressant

3.6(p105-106)

Question 141

Name some examples of stimulants:

Answer 141

nicotine, caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines

drugs

3.6(p105-106)

Question 142

a compound found in plants, including tobacco, that stimulates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors

Answer 142

nicotine

drugs

3.6(p105-106)

Question 143

Why does smoking/vaping cigs or ecigs have a more rapid effect than nicotine from other tobacco products?

Answer 143

it is directly delivered to the large surface of the lungs and, as result, enters the blood and brain more rapidly

3.6(p105-106)

Question 144

What are some short and long-term impacts of nicotine use?

Answer 144

Short-term:
- increases heart rate
- increases blood pressure, increases digestive action
- increases alertness
- in all, these effects make tobacco use pleasurable

Long-term:
- impacts on physiological development
and cognitive development
- tar on lungs = lung cancer, emphysemia
- addictive

Drugs

3.6(p105-106)

Question 145

How might nicotine impact development?

Answer 145

due to changes in pubertal development of cholinergic and glutamaterigic systems and, possibly, long-lasting modifications of neural function

Drugs

3.6(p106)

Question 146

How does nicotine exert its effects in the body?

Answer 146

through nicotinic ACh receptors, which are found in high concentrations in the brain, including the cortex – this is one way that nicotine enhances some aspects of cognitive performance

nicotinic receptors also:
- are acted upon by nicotine in ventral tegmental area to exert rewarding/addicting effects
- drive contraction of skeletal muscles
- drive activation of various visceral organs

Drugs

3.6(p106)

Question 147

a drug of abuse, derived from the coca plant, that acts by enhancing catecholamine neurotransmission

Answer 147

cocaine

Drugs

3.6(p106)

Question 148

How does cocaine exert its stimulant effects?

Answer 148

blocks the reuptake of monoamine transmitters (especially dopamine and norepinephrine), causing transmitters to accumulate in synapses throughout much of the brain, therefore boosting their effects

Drugs

3.6(p106)

Question 149

List short-term and long-term impacts of cocaine use:

Answer 149

Short-term:
- powerful and pleasant stimulant effects
Long-term:
- highly addictive with high rates of relapse
- potential for stroke
- potential for psychosis
- loss of gray matter in frontal lobes
- severe mood disturbances
- in combination with other substances, runs the risk of dual dependence (ex. cocaine metabolized in presense of alcohol yields an active cocaethylne, to which user may develop addtl addiction)
-

Drugs

3.6(p106)

Question 150

What is cocaethylne?

Answer 150

An active metabolite yielded when cocaine is metabolized in the presence of alcohol; puts cocaine users at risks of developing another addiction/dual dependence

Drugs

3.6(p106)

Question 151

molecule that resembles structure of the catecholamine transmitters and enhances their activity

(induces accumulation of DA and norepinephrine in synapse)

Answer 151

amphetamine

Drugs; aka “speed”

3.6(p106)

Question 152

How does amphetamine work differently than cocaine?

Answer 152

1. amphetamine acts within axon terminals to cause larger-than normal release of NT when the synapse is activated
2. amphetamine then interferes with clearance of released transmitter by blocking reuptake and metabolic breakdown

The result is the affected synapses become unnaturally potent with strong impacts on behavior.

3.6(p106)

Question 153

List short- and long-term impacts of amphetamine use:

Answer 153

Short-term:
- increased vigor and stamina
- wakefulness
- decreased appetite
- euphoria

Resistance/tolerance, requiring larger doses leading to symptoms like:
- sleeplessness
- severe weight loss
- general deterioration of mental/physical condition

Long-term, may lead to symptoms similar to schizophrenia:
- compulsivity
- agitated behavior
- irrational suspiciousness
- neglect of diet/basic hygeine
- peripheral effects like high blood pressure, tremor, dizziness, sweating, rapid breathing, nausea
- brain damage (long after use of meth)

-

3.6(p107)

Question 154

African shrub that, when chewed, acts as a stimulant

Answer 154

khat

or qat; Drugs

3.6(p107)

Question 155

amphetamine-like stimulants released when khat is chewed

many types of synthetic ——, known collectively as “bath salts,” have been developed and marketed in recent years

these new designer drugs, especially mephedrone (plant food or “meow meow”) are rapidly growing in popularity despite potential for damaging effects on brain, muscular system, and kidneys

Answer 155

cathinones

Drugs

3.6(p107)

Question 156

How does alcohol work?

Answer 156

has a biphasic effect on nervous system: at first, acts as a stimulant, then it has a more prolonged depressant phase (disinhibition in neural activity NOT depression as in the mental health condition)

biphasic nature is thought to be result of alcohol’s effects on several different NT systems, like glutamate and GABA

inhibits neural excitability in multiple brain regions via an action on GABA receptors, resulting in the social disinhibition, poor motor control and sensory disturbances that we call drunkenness

additionally, alcohol activates dopamine-mediated reward symptoms of the brain, accounting for some of the pleasure associated with drinking

3.6(p107)

Question 157

a family of developmental disorders that vary in severity, resulting from fetal exposure to alcohol consumed by the mother

severe cases, associated with levels of alcohol abuse by the mother, include intellectual disability and facil abnormalities

Figure 3.11 - MRI of healthy infant brain vs. infant w FASD
- FASD MRI - reduced gray matter, complete absense of corpus callosum, abnormal organization of the brain; characteristic deformities of head and face

Answer 157

fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)

3.6(p107)

Question 158

Are the impacts of alcoholism on the brain permanent?

Answer 158

Probably not – after just 1 week of abstinence, average volume of multiple brain regions noticeably increased in group of alcoholics copared with alcoholic and nonalcoholic control groups.

Not clear how much cognitive improvements accompany these changes, but results illustrate potential benefits of reduced intake in heavy drinkers

3.6(p109) - Figure 3.12

Question 159

a drug that alters sensory perception and produces peculiar experiences; the various ———– are diverse in their neural actions

Answer 159

hallucinogens

aka psychadelics or entheogens

3.6(p109)

Question 160

Explain why the term “hallucinogens” is a misnomer.

Answer 160

a hallucination is a novel perception that takes place in the absense of sensory stimulation (hearing voices, seeing something that isn’t there), BUT drugs in this category mostly alter or distort existing perceptions (mainly visual in nature)

Users may see fantastic images, but they are usually aware that these altered perceptions are not real events.

3.6(p109)

Question 161

a hallucinogenic drug that structurally resembles serotonin and strongly activates 5-HT2A receptors found in especially heavy concentrations in the visual cortex

Answer 161

LSD

aka lysergic acid diethylamide or “acid”; drug

3.6(p109)

Question 162

a hallucinogen that is unusual among other hallucinogens in that it acts on the opioid kappa receptor

Answer 162

Salvia divinorum

Drugs

3.6(p109)

Question 163

the Father of LSD

accidentally discovered LSD by taking it in 1943, and devoted the rest of his career to studying it.

Answer 163

Albert Hofmann

People & Theories category

3.6(p110)

Question 164

a drug that is widespread in use in medical settings as a component of anesthesia, but also has significant hallucinogenic properties

Acts principally (but not exclusively) to block NMDA receptors, ——– increases activity in prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, producing feelings of depersonalization and detachment from reality.

Low doses have potent/rapid antidepressant effect that may help ease symptoms in resistant cases.

Answer 164

Ketamine

Drugs

3.6(p110)

Question 165

a drug of abuse that stimulates visual cortical 5-HT2A receptors while also changing levels of dopamine and certain hormones (e.g., prolactin, oxytocin) that have been associated with prosocial feelings and behaviors

Drugs

Answer 165

MDMA

aka “ecstasy” or “molly”

3.6(p110)

Question 166

List some complications due to hallucinogen use:

Answer 166

Varied complications depending on type of hallucinogen.
- major hallucinogens seem to have low addiction potential
- LSD - relatively few side effects (though some report long-lasting visual changes)
- MDMA - long-term use may cause problems with mood and cognitive performance, and long-lasting changes in patterns of brain activation

Question 167

List recreational uses, possible clinical uses and action in brain for:

Psilocybin/psilocin
(according to archaelogical evidence this was used in prehistory)

aka Psilocybe mushroom

Answer 167

Action in brain:
- Partial agonist of 5-HT receptors, especially 5-HT2A receptors that occur in high density in visual cortex
- modifies activity of frontal and occipital cortex

Recreational use(s) (as reported by users):
- feelings of transcendence
- spiritual experiences
- intense visual experiences
- alterations in perception of time
- NOTE: exact effects are strongly influenced by environment and user expectations

Potential clinical application(s):
- improvements in OCD symptoms
- cluster headache (a type of migraine)
- treatment-resistent depression
- debilitating anxiety/anxious (ex. terminal cancer patients)

3.6(p110) Table 3.4 Possible Clinical Applications for Hallucinogens

Question 168

List recreational uses, possible clinical uses and action in brain for:

lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)

aka “acid”

Answer 168

Action in brain:
- activates many subtypes of monoamine receptors, esp. DA and 5-HT
- this results in heightened activity in many cortical regions, especially frontal, cingulate, and occipital cortex

Recreational use(s):
- produces pronounced perceptual changes resembling hallucinations
- intense colors in geometric patterns
- novel visual objects
- altered sense of time

Possible Clinical Application(s):
- treatment of alcoholism and other additions
- may be effective treatment for some types of debilitating anxiety

3.6(p110) Table 3.4 Possible Clinical Applications for Hallucinogens

Question 169

List recreational uses, possible clinical uses and action in brain for:

Ketamine

aka “Special K”

Answer 169

Action in brain:
- widespread effects, especially blockade of NMDA receptors
- stimulates opioid and ACh receptors

Recreational use(s):
- creates detached, trancelike state (in keeping with its medical use as anesthetic)
- may also produce hallucinogenic perceptual alterations

Possible Clinical Application(s):
- at low doses, may be effective antidepressant, even in treatment-resistant cases

3.6(p110) Table 3.4 Possible Clinical Applications for Hallucinogens

Question 170

List recreational uses, possible clinical uses and action in brain for:

3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)

aka “ecstasy”

Answer 170

Action in brain:
- stimulates release of monoamine transmitters and prosocial hormone oxytocin

Recreational use(s):
- intense visual phenomenon
- empathy
- strongly prosocial feelings
- euphoria

Possible Clinical Application(s):
- may reduce PTSD symptoms, especially in combo with conventional psychotherapy
- still some drug safety concerns

3.6(p110) Table 3.4 Possible Clinical Applications for Hallucinogens

Question 171

Alcohol use disorder is characterized by the DSM-5 as “a problmatic pattern of alcohol use leading to clinically significant impairment or distress, as manifested by at least two of the following, occurring within a 12-month period:

Answer 171

1. alcohol is often taken in larger amounds or over longer period than intended
2. persistent desire or unsuccessful efforts to cut down/control alcohol use
3. much time is spent in activities necessary to obtain/use/recover from alcohol/its effects
4. craving, strong urge to use alcohol
5. recurrent alcohol use resulting in failure to fulfill role obligations at work, home, school
6. continued alcohol use despite persistent/recurrent social or interpersonal problems caused or worsened by alcohol effects
7. important social, occupational, or recreational activities are given up or reduced bc of alcohol use
8. recurrent use in situations where it’s physically hazardous
9. use is continued despire knowledge of having persistent physical or psych problem likely to have been caused or exacerbated by alc
10. tolerance as defined by either: need for markedly increased amounts of alc to achieve intoxication or desired effect OR markedly diminished effect with cntd use of same amount of alc
11. Withdrawal, as manifested by either: characteristic withdrawal syndrome for alc (listed elsewhere in DSM) OR alcohol/related substance taken to relieve or avoid withdrawal symptoms

3.7(p112) Table 3.5

Question 172

What are the four major models of substance abuse?

Answer 172

1. moral model
2. disease model
3. physical dependence model
4. positive reward model

3.7(p113)

Question 173

Explain the moral model of substance use.

Answer 173

The moral model blames substance use on weakness of character and lack of self-control.

Proponents may apply exhortation, peer pressure, religion to curb abusive practices.

Limited success, are not founded in scientific framework to address neurobiological roots of addiction.

Examples: temperance movement; D.A.R.E.

3.7(p113)

Question 174

Explain the disease model of substance use disorders.

Answer 174

According to the disease model, a person who abuses drugs requires medical treatment rather than moral exhortation or punishment. This model appeals to many and much research is focused on looking for pathological states that create addiction after initial exposure to drug.

Issue with this is that:
- substance abuse is unlike other diseases. “Disease” is generally reserved for a case involving physical abnormality, and there is no such case in substance use addictions.
- offers no clue about how addiction arises

3.7(p113)

Question 175

Explain the physical dependence model of substance use disorders.

Answer 175

Argues that people keep taking drugs in order to avoid withdrawal symptoms. Model does a good job of explaining why addicts will go to great lengths to obtain the drug they are addicted to.

Issues with this model:
- does not explain how addiction becomes established in the first place
- why do some people abuse drug before tolerance is developed?
- why do some people become addicted to some drugs even when there are minimal physical withdrawal symptoms? (ex. cocaine is powerfully addictive and produces intense drug craving but cocaine withdrawal is not accompanied by severe physical symptoms seen in other highly addictive drugs)

3.7(p113)

Question 176

Explain the positive reward model of substance use disorders.

Answer 176

proposes that people get started with drug abuse and become addictive because the abused drug provides powerful reinforcement

Examples: animals repeatedly lever-pressing in order to receive small dose of addictive drug like cocaine or morphine

3.7(p113)

Answer 177

withdrawal symptoms

Answer 178

dysphoria

Question 179

What is considered to be the most probable model for explaining addiction?

Answer 179

Positive reward model

Question 180

a region of the forebrain that receives dopaminergic innervation from the ventral tegmental area, often associated with reward and pleasurable sensations

many addictive drugs cause the release of dopamine in this region

Answer 180

nucleus accumbens

Question 181

Which pathway do many drugs of abuse activate, producing rewarding sensations?

Answer 181

dopaminergic pathway

various pleasurable activities (sex, shopping, games, exercise, gambling) activate this pathway. These activties “reward” may be eclipsed if an individual uses drugs, since certain drugs activate the dopaminergic pathway so strongly.

3.7(p114)

Question 182

A region of cortex lying below the surface, within the lateral sulcus, of the frontal, temporal and parietal lobes.

This region appears to play an important role in addiction, craving, and pleasure.

Shrinkage of the left ——– is observed in people addicted to various substances.

Answer 182

insula

3.7(p114)

Question 183

List strategies to treat addiction through medicine (and examples of medicines).

Answer 183

• Lessening discomfort of withdrawal and drug craving (benzodiazepenes/other sedatives, anti-nausea meds, sleep meds; TMS also may reduce drug hunger/relapse rates)
• providing an alternative to the addictive drug (agonists/partial agonist analogs of the addictive drug weakly activate same mechanisms to help wean person; ex. methadone, nicotine patch)
• directly blocking actions of the addictive drug (specific receptor antagonisists; ex. Narcan)
• altering metabolism of addictive drug (changing drug’s breakdown to reduce or reverse rewarding properties; ex. Disulfiram changes alc metabolism such that nausea-inducing metaobolite - acetaldehyde - accumulates)
• blcoking brain’s reward circuitry (ex. dopamine receptor blockers; can blunt activity of mesolimbocorticol DA reward system but also cause anhedonia)
• immunization to render the drug ineffective (vaccines against cocaine, heroin, and meth have been developed and are in testing)

3.7(p116) - Figure 3.17