Chapter 3 Flashcards
Unconscious
In psychoanalytic theory, that part of the mind outside of conscious awareness, containing hidden instincts, impulses, and memories
Example: The unconscious mind may influence behavior without the individual being aware of it.
Oedipal conflict
In Freudian theory, the erotic attachment to the other-sex parent, involving feelings of competition and hostility toward the same-sex parent and fears of retaliation (castration anxiety in boys) from the same-sex parent
Example: The Oedipal conflict is a key concept in psychoanalytic theory.
Defense mechanism
In Freudian theory, strategy whereby a person avoids anxiety-arousing experiences
Example: Repression is a common defense mechanism used to prevent anxiety.
Repression
Defense mechanism in which the anxiety-arousing memory or impulse is prevented from becoming conscious
Reaction formation
Defense mechanism in which a person behaves in a way directly opposite from some underlying impulse
Someone experiencing reaction formation may act overly friendly to hide feelings of anger.
Isolation
Defense mechanism in which a person separates emotional from intellectual content or otherwise separates experiences that would be anxiety arousing if permitted to occur together
Displacement
Defense mechanism in which the person shifts a reaction from the original target person or situation to some other person or situation (e.g., anger displacement from boss to family)
Projection
Defense mechanism in which a person disowns some impulse and attributes it to another person
Intrapsychic
Unobservable mental events such as ideas, wishes, and unconscious conflicts
Id
In Freudian theory, that part of the mind from which instinctual impulses originate
Example: The id operates on the pleasure principle.
Ego
In Freudian theory, that part of the mind that mediates between id impulses and external reality
Example: The ego balances the demands of the id and superego.
Superego
In Freudian theory, the internalized representative of parental or cultural values
Example: The superego aims for moral perfection.
Libido
Psychoanalytic concept referring to sexual instincts
Example: Freud emphasized the role of libido in human behavior.
Sublimation
Defense mechanism in which sexual instincts are rechanneled into substitute activities
Fixation
In Freudian theory, an unusual investment of libidinal energy at a certain psychosexual stage
Regression
In Freudian theory, a return to some earlier state of psychosexual development in the face of some current frustration
Phobia
Strong, irrational fear of some specific object, animal, or situation
Example: Phobias can lead to avoidance behaviors.
Free association
Basic procedure in psychoanalysis in which the patient is asked to say, without censorship, whatever comes to mind
Example: Free association can reveal unconscious thoughts and feelings.
Resistance
In psychoanalysis, the phenomenon in which patients unconsciously resist gaining insight into unconscious motives and conflicts
Example: Resistance can hinder the therapeutic process.
Transference
Irrational emotional reaction of a patient to the therapist (usually in psychoanalysis) in which early attitudes toward parents are “transferred” to the therapist
Example: Transference can provide insights into past relationships.
Behaviorism
An approach to understanding behavior that emphasizes the relation between observable behavior and specifiable environmental events (or stimuli)
Behaviorism focuses on external influences on behavior.
Reinforcement
Consequence that strengthens the future probability of a response that produces it
Example: Reinforcement can increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.
Primary reinforcer
Event, usually biological in nature, that almost always provides reinforcement, such as eating when hungry (Primary reinforcers do not acquire their reinforcing properties through learning.)
Example: Primary reinforcers are essential for survival.
Conditioned reinforcer
Consequence that has gained its reinforcing value by being paired with other reinforcers
Example: Money is a conditioned reinforcer in many cultures.
Punisher
Type of consequence that weakens or suppresses the behaviors that produce it
Punishment can decrease the likelihood of a behavior recurring.
Contingency
The specified dependency between a behavior and its antecedents and consequences
Positive reinforcement
The contingent presentation of a pleasant result, which strengthens subsequent responding
Positive reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.
Negative reinforcement
The contingent removal of an unpleasant stimulus, which strengthens subsequent responding
Discriminative stimulus
A stimulus that serves as a signal that a certain response will lead to a reinforce
Discriminative stimuli help individuals differentiate between situations.
Reversal design
An experimental design in which new reinforcement contingencies are instated for a period of time, followed by reinstatement of the old reinforcement contingencies, and finally the installment of the original, new contingencies (Sometimes a fourth reversal is included to show that the new contingencies are causing any observed changes in behavior.)
Modeling
Teaching a behavior by performing the behavior and having the learner imitate it
Modeling is an effective way to teach new skills.
Systematic desensitization
A counterconditioning procedure in which subjects are exposed to gradually stronger anxiety-producing stimuli while maintaining a state of relaxation
Systematic desensitization is used to treat phobias and anxiety disorders.
Covert sensitization
Form of behavior therapy in which a person is asked to imagine an upsetting scene in order to produce a form of aversion conditioning
Covert sensitization aims to reduce unwanted behaviors through negative associations.
Mindfulness
Objective self-observation and acceptance of thoughts, feelings, and sensations in the body
Humanistic approach
Emphasis on viewing people as whole human beings rather than analyzing them in an impersonal fashion
Example: The humanistic approach focuses on individual growth and self-actualization.
Chromosome
Elongated body in the cellular nucleus that carries genetic information (There are 23 pairs of chromosomes in human somatic cells.)
Example: Chromosomes contain genes that determine traits and characteristics.
Gene
Unit of hereditary information carried in a chromosome by DNA
Example: Genes are the basic units of inheritance.
Genotype
Total set of inherited characteristics determined by a person’s genetic makeup
Example: The genotype influences an individual’s physical and behavioral traits.
Phenotype
Observed characteristic that results from interaction between genotype and environmental influences
Example: Phenotype can be influenced by both genetic and environmental factors.
Epigenetics
Study of heritable phenotypic variation resulting from environmental conditions and life experiences
Example: Epigenetics explores how gene expression can be influenced by environmental factors.
Identical or monozygotic (MZ) twins
Twins resulting from the splitting of a single fertilized ovum who have exactly the same genetic makeup
Example: Identical twins share 100% of their genetic material.
Fraternal or dizygotic (DZ) twins
Twins that result from the simultaneous fertilization of two separate ova, with such a pair having the same degree of genetic similarity as any two nontwin siblings born to the same parent
Example: Fraternal twins are no more genetically similar than regular siblings.
Concordance
In genetic research, the degree to which related individuals share a similar trait
Example: High concordance rates suggest a strong genetic influence on a trait.
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Rare single-gene recessive metabolic disorder that can result in intellectual disability
Example: Phenylketonuria requires dietary management to prevent complications.
Neuron
Individual nerve cell
Example: Neurons transmit signals in the nervous system.
Dendrite
Branching fiber of a neuron that receives information from other neurons
Example: Dendrites play a crucial role in neural communication.
Dizygotic twins
Twins that result from the simultaneous fertilization of two separate ova, with such a pair having the same degree of genetic similarity as any two nontwin siblings born to the same parent
Example: Fraternal twins
Concordance
In genetic research, the degree to which related individuals share a similar trait
Phenylketonuria (PKU)
Rare single-gene recessive metabolic disorder that can result in intellectual disability
Neuron
Individual nerve cell
Dendrite
Branching fiber of a neuron that receives input from other neurons
Axon
Part of the neuron that carries neural impulses to other cells
Synapse
A tiny gap separating neurons, across which chemical communications between cells can occur
Neurotransmitter
Chemical substance released into the synapse that enables transmission of impulses from one neuron to another
Glial cells
Non-nerve cells that provide structural and metabolic support for neurons and neuronal transmission
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
Therapeutic induction of convulsive seizures by applying electrical current to the brain; found to have some effectiveness with severe depressions
Psychosurgery
Procedure that attempts to treat abnormal behavior by surgical intervention on the brain
Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia
Proposed that the disorder was caused by excessive dopamine activity in the brain (hence, DA-blocking drugs like Thorazine were useful)
Catecholamine hypothesis of depression
Proposed that the mood disorders resulted from a relative depletion of norepinephrine in the brain (hence, MAO-I drugs were useful because they enhanced NE activity)
Tardive dyskinesia
Occasional long-term side effect of some antipsychotic medications that involves rhythmical, stereotyped movements and lip smacking
