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Anatomy and Physiology > Chapter 2; The Chemistry Of Life > Flashcards

Chapter 2; The Chemistry Of Life Flashcards

1
Q

Biochemistry

A

study of the molecules that compose living organisms

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2
Q

Element

A

simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties

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3
Q

Atomic Number

A

number of protons in the nucleus

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4
Q

Trace Elements

A

element that does not account for more than 0.02%

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5
Q

Minerals

A

inorganic elements extracted from the soil by plants and passed up the food chain to humans and other organisms

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6
Q

Atoms

A

particles so small that are not visible to the human eye

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7
Q

Protons

A

single positive charge

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8
Q

Neutrons

A

no charge

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9
Q

atomic mass

A

total number of protons and neutrons

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10
Q

Electrons

A

tiny particles with a single negative charge and very low mass

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11
Q

Electron levels

A

electrons swarm about the nucleus in concentric regions

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12
Q

valence electrons

A

electrons on the outermost shell that determine the chemical bonding properties of an atom

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13
Q

isotopes

A

each of two or more forms of the same element that contain equal numbers of protons but different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei

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14
Q

Deuterium

A

one proton and one neutron

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15
Q

Tritium

A

one proton and two neutrons

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16
Q

atomic weight (relative atomic mass)

A

mixture of isotopes

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17
Q

radioisotopes

A

unstable isotopes

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18
Q

radioactivity

A

process of decay

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19
Q

Ionizing radiation

A

destroys molecules and produces dangerous free radicals and ions in human tissues

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20
Q

mutagenetic

A

causing mutations in DNA

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21
Q

carcinogenic

A

triggering cancer as a result of mutation

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22
Q

alpha particles

A

consists of two protons and two neutrons

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23
Q

beta particle

A

free electron

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24
Q

gamma rays

A

very dangerous even when emitted by sources outside the body

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25
Q

physical half-life

A

the time required for 50% of its atoms to decay to a more stable state

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26
Q

biological half-life

A

time required for half of it to disappear from the body

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27
Q

ions

A

charged particles with unequal numbers of protons and electrons

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28
Q

background radiation

A

measure of the level of ionizing radiation present in the environment at a particular location

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29
Q

radon

A

a gas produced by the decay of uranium in the earth

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30
Q

anion

A

particle that gains electrons acquires a negative charge

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31
Q

cation

A

particle that loses electrons acquires a positive charge

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32
Q

Electrolytes

A

substances that ionize in water and form solutions capable of conducting electricity

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33
Q

Free radicals

A

chemical particles with an odd number of electrons

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34
Q

superoxide anion

A

when an additional electron is added, it becomes a free radical

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35
Q

antioxidant

A

a chemical that neutralizes free radicals

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36
Q

Superoxide dismutase (SOD)

A

enzyme that alternately catalyzes the dismutation of the superoxide radical into ordinary molecular oxygen and hydrogen peroxide

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37
Q

Molecules

A

chemical particles composed of two or more atoms united by a chemical bond

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38
Q

compounds

A

molecules composed of two or more elements

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39
Q

molecular formulae

A

represents molecules that identify their elements and show how many atoms of each are present

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40
Q

isomers

A

molecules with identical molecular formulae but different arrangements of their atoms

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41
Q

structural formulae

A

shows the location of each atom

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42
Q

molecular weight

A

sum of the atomic weights of its atoms

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43
Q

chemical bonds

A

a molecule that is held together and molecules are attached to one another by forces

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44
Q

ionic bond

A

relatively weak attraction between an anion and a cation

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45
Q

covalent bond

A

sharing of one or more pairs of electrons between nuclei

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46
Q

single covalent bond

A

sharing one electron pair

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47
Q

double covalent bond

A

sharing of two electron pairs

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48
Q

nonpolar covalent bond

A

covalent bond in which electrons are equally attracted to both nuclei

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49
Q

Polar covalent bond

A

covalent bond in which electrons are more attracted to one nucleus than to the other, resulting in slightly positive and negative regions in one molecule

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50
Q

Hydrogen bond

A

weak attraction between polarized molecules or between polarized regions of the same molecule

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51
Q

Van der Waals Force

A

weak, brief attraction due to random disturbances in the electron clouds of adjacent atoms (weakest bond)

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52
Q

mixture

A

consists of substances that are physically blended but not chemically combined

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53
Q

solvency

A

ability to dissolve other chemicals

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54
Q

universal solvent

A

water

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55
Q

hydrophilic

A

substances that dissolve in water

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56
Q

hydrophobic

A

substances that do not dissolve in water

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57
Q

hydration sphere

A

cluster of water molecules

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58
Q

adhesion

A

the tendency of one substance to cling to another

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59
Q

cohesion

A

tendency of molecules of the same substances to cling to each other

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60
Q

surface film

A

an elastic layer of water cohensed

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61
Q

chemical reactivity

A

ability to participate in chemical reactions

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62
Q

hydrolysis

A

ions that are incorporated into other molecules in the chemical reactions

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63
Q

thermal stability

A

helps to stabilize the internal temperature of the body

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64
Q

heat capacity

A

the amount of heat required to raise the temperature

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65
Q

calorie

A

base unit of heat

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66
Q

solution

A

mix of solutes and solvents

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67
Q

solute

A

particles of matter

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68
Q

solvent

A

more abundant substance

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69
Q

colloids

A

body are mixtures of protein and water

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70
Q

emulsion

A

a suspension of one liquid in another

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71
Q

acid (proton donor)

A

a molecule that releases a proton in water

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72
Q

base

A

proton accepter

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73
Q

pH

A

measure derived from the molarity of H+

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74
Q

neutral pH

A

7.0

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75
Q

acidic

A

pH below 7

76
Q

basic (alkaline)

A

pH above 7

77
Q

buffers

A

chemical solutions that resist changes in pH

78
Q

weight per volume

A

weight of solute in a given volume of solution

79
Q

percentage

A

weight of solute as a percentage of solution volume or volume of a liquid as a percentage of total solution volume

80
Q

molarity

A

measure of the number of moles of solute per liter of solution

81
Q

milliequivalents per liter

A

the unit of measure is used to express electrolyte to concentrations

82
Q

energy

A

capacity to do work

83
Q

work

A

to move something

84
Q

potential energy

A

energy contained in an object because of its position or internal state but that is not doing work at the time

85
Q

kinetic energy

A

energy of motion

86
Q

chemical energy

A

potential energy stored in the bonds of molecules

87
Q

heat

A

kinetic energy of molecular motion

88
Q

electromagnetic energy

A

kinetic energy of moving “packets” of radiation called photons

89
Q

electrical energy

A

both potential and kinetic energy

90
Q

free energy

A

potential energy available in a system to do useful work

91
Q

chemical reaction

A

process in which a covalent or ionic bond is formed or broken

92
Q

chemical equation

A

shows the reactants on the left, the products on the right, and an arrow pointing from the reactants to the products

93
Q

decomposition reactions

A

a large molecule breaks down into two or more smaller ones

94
Q

synthesis reactions

A

two or more small molecules combine to form a larger one

95
Q

exchange reactions

A

two molecules exchange atoms or groups of atoms

96
Q

reversible reactions

A

can go in either direction under different circumstances

97
Q

law of mass action

A

they proceed from the reactants in greater quantity to the substances with the lesser quantity

98
Q

equilibrium

A

the ratio of products to reactants is stable

99
Q

concentration

A

reaction rate increases when the reactants are more concentrated

100
Q

temperature

A

reaction rate increases as the temperature rises

101
Q

catalysts

A

substances that temporarily bind to reactants, hold them in a favorable position to react with each other, and may change the shapes of reactants in ways that make them more likely to react

102
Q

metabolism

A

all the chemical reactions in the body

103
Q

catabolism

A

consists of energy-releasing decomposition reactions

104
Q

exergonic reactions

A

energy-releasing reactions

105
Q

Anabolism

A

consists of energy-storing synthesis reactions

106
Q

endergonic reactions

A

reactions that require an Energy input

107
Q

oxidixing agent (electron acceptor)

A

molecule that takes the electrons

108
Q

reduction

A

a chemical reaction in which a molecule gains electrons and energy

109
Q

reducing agent (electron donor)

A

a molecule that donates electrons to another

110
Q

oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions

A

the oxidation of one molecule is always accompanied by the reduction of another

111
Q

organic chemistry

A

the study of compounds of carbon

112
Q

functional groups

A

small clusters of atoms that determine many of the properties of an organic molecule

113
Q

macromolecules

A

gigantic organic molecules

114
Q

polymerization

A

the joining of monomers to form a polymer

115
Q

dehydration synthesis (condensation)

A

living cells achieve this by means of a reaction

116
Q

dimer

A

the two monomers become joined by a covalent bond

117
Q

carbohydrate

A

a hydrophilic organic molecule with the general formula

118
Q

monosaccharides

A

the simplest carbohydrates

119
Q

glucose

A

the “blood sugar” that provides energy to most of our cells

120
Q

disaccharides

A

sugars composed of two monosacharides

121
Q

sucrose

A

glucose + fructose

122
Q

lactose

A

glucose + galactose

123
Q

maltose

A

glucose + glucose

124
Q

oligosaccharides

A

short chains of three or more monosaccharides

125
Q

polysaccharides

A

long chains

126
Q

glycogen

A

an energy-storage polysaccharide made by cells of the liver, muscles, brain, uterus, and vagina

127
Q

starch

A

corresponding energy-storage polysaccharide of plants

128
Q

cellulose

A

structural polysaccharide that gives strength to the cell walls of plants

129
Q

glycoproteins

A

major component of mucus

130
Q

proteoglycans

A

macromolecules in which the carbohydrate component is dominant and a peptide or protein forms a smaller component

131
Q

lipids

A

a hydrophobic organic molecule

132
Q

fatty acids

A

precursor of triglycerides, source of energy

133
Q

triglycerides (neutral fats)

A

energy storage; thermal insulation; filling space; binding organs together; cushioning organs

134
Q

phospholipids

A

major component of cell membranes; aid in fat digestion

135
Q

eicosanoids

A

chemical messengers between cells

136
Q

steroids

A

chemical messengers between cells

137
Q

bile acids

A

steroids that aid in fat digestion and nutrient absorption

138
Q

cholesterol

A

component of cell membranes; precursor of other steroids

139
Q

fat-soluble vitamins (ADEK)

A

involved in a variety of functions including blood clotting, wound healing, vision, and calcium absorption

140
Q

polyunsaturated fatty acids

A

those with multiple C=C bonds

141
Q

prostaglandins

A

five of the carbon atoms are arranged in a ring

142
Q

radical (R group)

A

the 20 amino acids used to make proteins are identical except for a third functional group

143
Q

peptide

A

any molecule composed of two or more amino acids joined by peptide bonds

144
Q

peptide bonds

A

formed by dehydration synthesis, joins the amino group of one amino acid to the carboxyl group of the next

145
Q

oligopeptides

A

chains of fewer than 10 or 15 amino acids

146
Q

polypeptides

A

chains larger than 15 amino acids

147
Q

conformation

A

three-dimensional shape

148
Q

primary structure

A

protein’s sequence of amino acids, which is encoded in the genes

149
Q

secondary structure

A

a coiled or folded shape held together by hydrogen bonds between the slightly negative -C=O group of one peptide bond and the slightly positive -NH group of another one some distance away

150
Q

alpha helix

A

springlike shape

151
Q

beta sheet

A

pleated, ribbonlike shape

152
Q

tertiary structure

A

formed by the further bending and folding of proteins into various globular and fibrous shapes

153
Q

alpha helix

A

spring-like shape

154
Q

globular proteins

A

a compact tertiary structure well suited for proteins embedded in cell membranes and proteins that must move around freely

155
Q

fibrous proteins

A

used for muscle contractions and providing strength to skin, hair, and tendons

156
Q

Quaternary Structure

A

the association of two or more polypeptide chains by noncovalent forces

157
Q

Denaturation

A

a more drastic conformational change in response to conditions

158
Q

conjugated proteins

A

non-amino acid moiety

159
Q

Keratin

A

a tough structural protein gives strength to nails, hair, and skin

160
Q

collagen

A

durable protein

161
Q

ligand

A

any hormone or molecule that reversibly binds to a protein

162
Q

molecular motors (motor proteins)

A

special power that some proteins can change shape repeatedly

163
Q

enzymes

A

proteins that function as biological catalysts

164
Q

substrate

A

enzyme’s action

165
Q

amylase

A

digests starch

166
Q

carbonic anhydrase

A

removes water

167
Q

activation energy

A

the energy needed to get the reaction started

168
Q

sucrase

A

an enzyme that breaks sucrose down to glucose and fructose

169
Q

active site

A

a substrate molecule approaches a pocket on the enzyme surface

170
Q

enzyme-substrate complex

A

the substrate binds to the enzyme

171
Q

enzyme-substrate specificity

A

the substrate slightly changes the shape of the enzyme to create a better fit between the two

172
Q

cofactor

A

about two-thirds of human enzymes require a nonprotein partner

173
Q

coenzymes

A

organic cofactors usually derived from niacin, riboflavin, and other water soluble vitamins

174
Q

aerobic respiration

A

uses energy from electrons to make ATP

175
Q

metabolic pathway

A

a chain of reactions with each step usually catalyzed by a different enzyme

176
Q

nucleotides

A

organic compounds with three principal components

177
Q

nitrogenous base

A

a single or double carbon-nitrogen ring

178
Q

adenine

A

double ring

179
Q

ribose

A

sugar

180
Q

adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

A

the body’s most important energy-transfer molecule

181
Q

adenosine triphosphatases (ATPases)

A

enzymes specialized to hydrolyze the third phosphate bond, producing ADP

182
Q

guanosine triphosphate (GTP)

A

another nucleotide involved in energy transfers

183
Q

cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)

A

a nucleotide formed by the removal of both the second and third phosphate groups from ATP

184
Q

nucleic acids

A

polymers of nucleotides

185
Q

deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

A

typically 100 million to 1 billion

186
Q

ribonucleic acid (RNA)

A

70-10,000 nucleotides long, carry out those instructions and synthesize the proteins, assembling amino acids in the right order to produce each protein “described” by the DNA

Anatomy and Physiology (8 decks)

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