Chapter 2

Question 1

As most researchers in the multicultural arena would agree whereas our methods may aim for objectivity, our results and interpretations are

Answer 1

laden with subjective values

Question 2

Internal validity refers to

Answer 2

causal inference. It suggests that our changes make a difference

Question 3

The reason researchers randomly assign potential research participants to experimental and control groups is to have

Answer 3

more confidence that the changes in procedures cause differences in the behavior

Question 4

external validity refers to

Answer 4

generalizability of the result we obtain. External validity may be - and often is - at odds with internal validity. Increasing one may jeopardize the other

Question 5

Even though psychologists have recognized that both internal and external validity are important, the notions that internal validity is indispensable in experimental design and that external validity is never completely answerable have influenced the field to markedly

Answer 5

favor internal validity over external validity. Sue called this selective enforcement of scientific principles

Question 6

quantitative study

Answer 6

research that involves turning questions into meaningful numbers that can be compared with other numbers. Our entire system of statistics is based on comparing numbers to make inferences about differences between groups and individuals

Question 7

logical positivism

Answer 7

a scientific approach that attempts to measure truth or real phenomena through methods of numbers and statistical analyses

Question 8

collecting only numerical data may result in the loss of some important information and/or may ignore contextual variables that could affect how we respond

Answer 8

Qualitative approach to research can be employed when a researcher determines that gathering strictly numerical answers to questions results in the loss of essential information

Question 9

Intersubjective approach

Answer 9

treats individuals within societies as quasirational arbiters, so there collective wisdom is most likely close to the norm of society. This approach has 3 premises:
a) people often act based on their perception of the beliefs and values of the wider society; b) the immediate environment plays a role in one’s perception of the broader society’s beliefs and values, so not everyone in a society has the same intersubjective perception; and c) intersubjective perceptions are sometimes distinct from one’s personal beliefs and values

Question 10

Two reasons why qualitative methods have not been widely employed:

Answer 10

1. They typically use far fewer research participants and require more time to gather information because of the interview format of data collection.
2. there is no agreement on the best ways to interpret the information we receive

Question 11

functional equivalence

Answer 11

the equating of items on a test or a survey functionally. For example, if we were to inquire about a child’s knowledge of and conclusions about fairy tales, we might select Beauty and the Beast if we were testing children in this country, whereas we were testing children from a different background we might select a well-known fairy tale from the child’s country of origin

Question 12

conceptual equivalence

Answer 12

refers to the term or phrase that is culturally meaningful equivalent of the term being examined. For example, the term depression does not exist in some cultures, but if one were to describe a condition wherein an individual experiences fatigue and slowness of thought, the symptoms could be identified by those cultures. Thus, although the term depression does not exist in those cultures, the condition of depression does

Question 13

linguistic equavilence

Answer 13

the translation of a term that carries with it similar meaning from one language to another. Most people have accepted the standard that measures must be back-translated instead of merely translated

Question 14

Back translation

Answer 14

is a procedure whereby the measure is translated into the target language and then translated back to the original language. If the back translation is the same or nearly the same as the original, then the translation is acceptable for the study. However, sometimes a back translation is very different from the original phrasing, so a different translation must be sought.

Question 15

metric equivalence

Answer 15

numeric scores that are generally equivalent from one culture to another. Some cultures may be risk-averse and not select the extremes of the possible answers. For example, in a culture that tends to be risk-averse, research participants presented with a 7-point scale may select 6 as the highest score, so the researcher may have to make 6 in that culture the equivalent of 7 in a culture that uses the full range of the scale

Question 16

Hay’s model of inquiry with older individuals of color which she calls ADDRESSING. This acronym stands for

Answer 16

A) age and generational influences; D) developmental and acquired; D) disability; R) religion; E) ethnic and racial identity; S) social status; S) sexual orientation; I) indigenous heritage; N) national origin; G) gender

Question 17

Elderly individuals. particularly Asians, may feel more comfortable with qualitative studies than with quantitative studies

Answer 17

Thus, part of the advantage of these quality techniques of data gathering seems to lie in the communal interaction in which the participants are able to engage

Question 18

two common research designs are

Answer 18

cross-sectional and longitudinal designs

Question 19

cross-sectional designs

Answer 19

gather data across different age groups. They collect data all at once. For example, if we wanted to know whether people become more conservative as they grow older, we might collect data from individuals in their 20s, 30s, 40s, 50s, 60s, and 70s and see whether the participant responses are more conservative in later age groups than in earlier age groups.

Question 20

One problem with cross-sectional designs of research is

Answer 20

it may not accurately characterize the progression of political thought. Younger people may feel more liberal about some issues, and older people may feel more conservative about them

Question 21

longitudinal designs

Answer 21

collect data at one point in time and follow a certain set of individuals over time. Thus, to find out about liberal and conservative attitudes, we might want to collect data on 20-year-old individuals and then follow them for 60 years to see whether their attitudes become more conservative

Question 22

Problems with longitudinal designs of research are

Answer 22

the length of time it takes to collect and analyze the data. Researchers must have the vision to design such a study when they are very young, the funding to sustain the research, and the patience to wait 60 years for the results. Over the course of the study, some participants may pass away, and researchers may also pass away. The cohort of individuals may be unusual. For example, individuals who grew up during the Great Depression may have an entirely different worldview than individuals who grew up during the civil rights movement

Question 23

Research in aging has long advocated ____ in studying elderly population

Answer 23

sequential designs

Question 24

sequential design

Answer 24

is a combination of the cross-sectional and longitudinal designs. Researchers collect data on multiple cohorts of individuals and follow them over time so that by the end of the study, all age groups may be represented

Question 25

An example of sequential design

Answer 25

We might design a study collecting data on individuals in their 20s, 30s, 40s, and 50s and follow these four cohorts for 30 years. Thus, the individuals in the first group will represent ages from 20 to 50 (assuming some individuals were 20 years old when they first began the study), individuals in the second group will represent ages 30 to 60, and so on. Although this design still requires the researcher to actively collect data for a long time, it requires much less time (30 years) than a strict longitudinal design (60 years) in this example

Question 26

In the sequential design, the researcher will be able to compare data from multiple groups at similar ages.

Answer 26

For example, if we want to see how liberal or conservative individuals are at age 45, we can look at three groups: the cohort whose data were collected in their 20s because 20 years later, many of these individuals will have become 45 years old; the cohort whose data were collected when they were in their 30s, all of whom will have come age 45, and the cohort whose data were collected in their 40s, which will have many individuals whose data at age 45 will be available.

Question 27

If a cohort is unusual, the data collected from it will differ from the data collected from the other cohorts. However, if the data are more of a function of age than of cohort, the results will be

Answer 27

similar across the cohorts

Question 28

high-stakes testing

Answer 28

the results of the test have real implications for getting into schools, applying for jobs, setting the tone to how people respond to you, and so forth

Question 29

bias of the user

Answer 29

a bias in the interpretation of a test when the test user has a particular perspective or bias that may disadvantage a person or group

Question 30

bias in the usage

Answer 30

a bias introduced when a test is used in an inappropriate manner, such as being administered in a language in which the test taker is not fluent

Question 31

quantitative data

Answer 31

data that can be transformed into numbers so that averages of our group can be compared with averages of another group

Question 32

qualitative data

Answer 32

are more difficult to collect and interpret. However, qualitative data can be may be more meaningful in studies of groups of people of color, comparisons between women and men, and studies of elderly populations