CHAPTER 2 Flashcards
1
Q
What is the blueprint of Protein
A
DNA
2
Q
Decoder and Messenger
A
RNA
3
Q
Carry sequence in bui
A
mRNA
4
Q
Forms the ribosomes
A
rRNA
5
Q
Two parts of Protein synthesis
A
Transcription and Translation
6
Q
Transfers amino acids
A
tRNA
7
Q
What summarizes the Protein Synthesis
A
Central Dogma
8
Q
Site of transcription
A
Nucleus
9
Q
Describe the central dogma
A
DNA to RNA to Protein
10
Q
Site for translation
A
Ribosomes
11
Q
It is the process of transcribing genetic instructions from DNA bases into its complementary RNA bases
A
Transcription
12
Q
Region where RNA polymerase binds
A
Promoter sequence/ region
13
Q
DNA strand that codes
A
Anti-sense strand
14
Q
Complementary strand of DNA template strand
A
Sense strand
15
Q
DNA goes out the nucleus
A
FALSE
16
Q
what is the term for the newly produce mRNA from the nucleus before it is transported
A
pre-mRNA
17
Q
What are the modifications done in mRNA
A
Splicing
editing
5’ capping
polyadenylation
18
Q
Removal of introns and splicing together of exons by spliceosomes
A
Splicing
19
Q
A
20
Q
It is the changing in nucleotide bases for example in the human protein that transports lipids to the blood has 2 modifications, a is smaller due to early stop codons
A
Editing
21
Q
What are the stop codons
A
UAA, UAG, UGA
22
Q
It is the addition of modified methylene cap at 5’ end for protection from degradation and aiding the ribosomes where to attach on the mRNA
A
5’ capping
23
Q
It is the addition of a tail of adenine bases at the 3’ end signaling the end of the strand. It also to protect the mRNA from enzymes and for the transport from the nucleus
A
Polyadenylation
24
Q
What are the three stages of translation
A
Initiation, Elongation, and Termination
25
It is the stage where mRNA binds to the small ribosomal subunits, and the tRNA and the large ribosomal subunits forming the initiation complex
Initiation
26
It is the stage where tRNA with the anticodons brings amino acids to the growing peptide
Elongation
27
Site in the ribosome where tRNA brings new amino acid and bonded to the made chain by peptide bond
A site
28
It is the site where the new peptide chain is moved waiting for a new amino acid
P site
29
Site where acylated tRNA moves to leave the ribosomal complex
E site
30
What is the start codon
AUG (Methionine)
31
It is the phase where stop codon is read signaling for release factors that breaks down the entire initiation complex
Termination
32
Where does the tRNA goes after the break down of the complex
To the cytoplasmic pool to recharge its new amino acid
33
It is the programmed cell death to maintain balance in cell number and for
Apoptosis
34
What are the stages of apoptosis
1)Normal cell
2) Cell shrinks and chromosomes condense
3) Membrane starts to bleb. Organelles starts to collapse
4) Nucleus and organelles starts to fragments as the cytoskeleton collapse. The membrane continues to bleb
5) Apoptotic bodies are produced
6) Apoptotic bodies are phagocytosed by macrophages
7) No inflammation
35
It is the process done by the body to eliminate cancer causing cells or cells infected by virus
Apoptosis
35
It is the cell death caused by external factors or injury
Necrosis
36
What process is done to eliminate the cell tissues between the fingers during early fetal development, and also damaged cells are moved
Apoptosis
37
It is the study of tissues
Histology
38
Histology is under what subdivision of Anatomy
Microscopic Anatomy
39
It is composed of similar cells for a common function
Tissue
40
What are the types of tissues
Epithelial, Connective, Muscular, and Nervous
41
covers body surfaces and lines hollow
organs, body cavities, and ducts; it also forms glands. This
tissue allows the body to interact with both its internal and
external environments.
Epithelial Tissue
42
protects and supports the body and its
organs; bind organs
together, store energy reserves as fat, and help provide the
body with immunity to disease-causing organisms
Connective tissues
43
composed of cells specialized for
contraction and generation of force; generates heat that warms the body.
Muscular Tissues
44
detects changes in a variety of conditions
inside and outside the body and responds by generating
electrical signals called nerve action potentials (nerve
impulses) that activate muscular contractions and
glandular secretions.
Nervous Tissues
45
Avascular tissue
Epithelial tissue
46
removal of a
sample of living tissue for microscopic examination
Biopsy
47
Differentiate Epithelial tissue from connective tissue
Cells are tightly packed (no extracellular matrix), avascular, forms the linings
48
Why are epithelial and connective tissues found adjacent
to each other
So that the connective tissue will able to supply the epithelial tissue with oxygen and nutrients, and eliminates wastes through blood transport
49
What are the three parts of the epithelial cells
Apical, Lateral and basal surfaces
50
Type of junction between the basal surface and basement membrane
Hemidesmosomes
51
What are the functions of epithelial tissues
Protection, secretion, filtration, absorption, diffusion
52
What are the classifications of the Epithelium
Based on cell shape and no. of layers
53
Layer of cells functions
in diffusion, osmosis, filtration, secretion, or absorption.
Simple
53
Cells that do
extend to the apical surface may contain cilia; others
(goblet cells) secrete mucus.
Pseudostratified
54
protect underlying tissues in
locations where there is considerable wear and tear.
Stratified
55
single layer of flat cells that resembles a tiled floor when viewed from apical
surface; centrally located nucleus that is flattened and oval or spherical in shape.
Simple squamous epithelium
56
Endothelium can be found at
blood vessels, heart and lymphatic vessels
57
Mesothelium is at
Serous membranes of abdominal and thoracic cavity (pericardium, pleura, peritoneal)
58
kidney tubules and smaller ducts of many glands; surface of ovary; lines anterior surface of capsule of lens of the eye; forms pigmented epithelium at posterior
surface of retina of the eye
Simple cuboidal epithelium
59
Fingerlike cytoplasmic
projections, increase surface area of plasma membrane thus increasing cell’s rate of absorption.
Microvilli
60
modified columnar epithelial cells that secrete mucus, a slightly sticky fluid, at their apical surfaces.
Goblet cells
61
Lines digestive canal (from stomach to anus), ducts of many glands, and gallbladder
Nonciliated simple columnar epithelium
62
Secretion and absorption; larger columnar cells contain more organelles and thus are capable of higher level of secretion
and absorption than are cuboidal cells. Secreted mucus lubricates linings of digestive, respiratory, and genital tracts, and
most of urinary tract; helps prevent destruction of stomach lining by acidic gastric juice secreted by stomach
Nonciliated simple columnar epithelium
63
single layer of ciliated
columnlike cells with oval nuclei near base of cells. Goblet cells are
usually interspersed
Ciliated simple columnar epithelium
64
Lines some bronchioles (small tubes) of respiratory tract, uterine
tubes, uterus, some paranasal sinuses, central canal of spinal
cord, and ventricles of brain
Ciliated simple cuboidal epithelium
65
Lines epididymis, larger ducts of many glands, and parts of male urethra.
Nonciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium
66
Lines airways of most of upper respiratory tract.
Ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium
67
forms superficial layer of skin
Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
68
tough, fibrous intracellular protein that helps protect skin and
underlying tissues from heat, microbes, and chemicals
Keratin
69
lines wet surfaces (lining of mouth, esophagus,
part of epiglottis, part of pharynx, and vagina) and covers tongue; constantly moistened by mucus from salivary and mucous glands; surface cells do not die in this
epithelium; instead, they are shed before they die.
Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
70
Ducts of adult sweat glands and esophageal glands, part of male urethra.
Stratified Cuboidal epithelium
71
Lines part of urethra; large excretory ducts of some glands, such as esophageal glands; small areas in anal mucous
membrane; part of conjunctiva of eye
Stratified Columnar epithelium
72
has a variable appearance (transitional) and is unique to the urinary system; at urinary bladder, ureters, and portions of urethra
Urothelium (Transitional Epithelium)
73
involves collection and microscopic examination of epithelial cells that have been scraped off the apical
layer of a tissue. A very common type of involves examining the cells from the nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelium of the cervix (inferior portion) of the uterus.
Papanicolaou Test (Pap smear)
74
consists of epithelium that
secretes substances into ducts (tubes), onto a surface, or eventually into the blood in the absence of ducts
gland
75
duct of the gland does not branch
simple gland
76
duct branches
Compound gland
77
Glands with tubular secretory
Tubular gland
78
rounded secretory portions
Acinar glands
79
secretions are synthesized on ribosomes attached to rough ER; processed, sorted, and packaged
by the Golgi complex; and released from the cell in secretory vesicles via exocytosis
merocrine
glands
80
accumulate their secretory product at the
apical surface of the secreting cell. Then, that portion of the
cell pinches off by exocytosis from the rest of the cell to release the secretin,
Apocrine sweat glands
81
accumulate a secretory product in their cytosol. As the secretory cell matures,
it ruptures and becomes the secretory product
Holocrine glands
82
It binds together, supports, and strengthens
other body tissues; protects and insulates internal organs; compartmentalizes structures such as skeletal muscles; serves as the
major transport system within the body (blood, a liquid connective tissue); contains and distributes almost all the blood vessels
in the body; is the primary location of stored energy reserves (adipose, or fat, tissue); and is the main source of immune responses
Connective tissue
83
Connective tissue consists of two basic elements
Extracellular matrix and cells
84
Connective tissue that is avascular and lacks nerves
cartilage
84
composition of the ECM
protein fibers and the ground substance
85
Embryonic cells that give rise to the connective tissue cells
mesenchymal cells
86
Connective tissue cells
Fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells, plasmocytes, adipocytes, leukocytes
87
contains water and an assortment
of large organic molecules, many of which are complex
combinations of polysaccharides and proteins
ground substance
88
hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulfate,
dermatan sulfate, and keratan sulfate.
glycosaminoglycans (GaGs)
89
trap water, making the ground substance more jellylike
GAGs
90
viscous, slippery substance that binds cells together, lubricates joints,
and helps maintain the shape of the eyeballs.
hyaluronic acid
91
makes ground substance more watery
hyaluronidase
92
have
been used as nutritional supplements either alone or in combination to promote and maintain the structure and function of joint
cartilage, to provide pain relief from osteoarthritis, and to reduce
joint inflammation.
Chondroitin sulfate and glucosamine
93
are very strong and
resist pulling or stretching, but they are not stiff, which allows tissue flexibility.
Collagen fibers
94
Collagen fibers often occur in parallel bundles found in bone, cartilage, tendons (which attach muscle to bone), and ligaments (which attach bone to bone).
dense regular connective tissue
95
An elastic fiber consists of molecules of
the protein elastin surrounded by a glycoprotein named fibrillin,
which adds strength and stability; plentiful in skin, blood vessel walls, and lung tissue.
Elastic fibers
96
consisting of collagen arranged in fine bundles with a coating of glycoprotein, provide
support in the walls of blood vessels and form a network around
the cells in some tissues, such as areolar connective tissue
(a-RĒ-oˉ -lar; areol = small space), adipose tissue, nerve fibers,
and smooth muscle tissue; Produced by fibroblasts; forms the stroma; basement membrane
Reticular fibers
97
connective tissue present in an embryo or a fetus
Embryonic connective tissue
98
connective tissue present at birth
and persists throughout life
Mature connective tissue
99
Two types of embryonic connective tissues
mesenchyme and mucoid (mucous) connective tissue
100
Umbilical cord of fetus.
mucoid connective tissue
101
Categories of mature connective tissue
Connective, supporting, liquid connective tissues
101
Types of connective tissues under mature CT
loose and dense
102
Types of loose connective tissues
areolar, adipose, reticular connective tissue
103
most widely distributed connective tissues; consists of fibers arranged randomly and several kinds of cells embedded in semifluid ground substance
Areolar connective tissue
104
subcutaneous tissue deep to skin, around heart and kidneys, yellow bone
marrow, padding around joints and behind eyeball in eye socket
Adipose tissue
104
In and around nearly every body structure (thus, called “packing material” of the body)
Areolar connective tissue
105
specialized for storage of triglycerides (fats)
as a large, centrally located droplet
adipose tissue
106
Reduces heat loss through skin; serves as an energy reserve; supports and protects organs. In newborns, BAT generates
heat to maintain proper body temperature; excellent source of stem cells, which are used in
rejuvenation medicine to repair or replace damaged tissue.
Adipose tissue
107
fine interlacing network of reticular fibers (thin form of collagen fiber) and reticular cells
Reticular connective tissue
107
Stroma (supporting framework) of liver, spleen, lymph nodes; red bone marrow;
Reticular connective tissue
108
Forms stroma of organs; binds smooth muscle tissue cells; filters and removes worn-out blood cells in spleen and
microbes in lymph nodes
Reticular connective tissue
109
Types of dense connective tissue
dense regular connective tissue, dense
irregular connective tissue, and elastic connective tissue
110
forms shiny white extracellular matrix;
mainly collagen fibers regularly arranged in bundles with fibroblasts in rows
between them.
Dense regular connective tissue
111
tendons, ligaments, aponeuroses
Dense regular connective tissue
112
is made up of collagen fibers; usually irregularly arranged with a few fibroblasts.
Dense irregular collagen fibers
113
fasciae, heart valves, perichondrium
dense irregular
114
contains predominantly elastic fibers with fibroblasts between them
elastic connective tissue
115
What are the types of supporting connective tissues
cartilage and osseous
116
Walls of elastic arteries and trachea, bronchial tubes within the lungs, true vocal cords, suspensory ligaments of penis, some
ligaments between vertebrae
Elastic connective tissue
117
antiangiogenesis factor; consists of a dense network
of collagen fibers or elastic fibers firmly embedded in chondroitin sulfate, a gel-like component of the ground substance.
cartilage
118
What are the types of cartilage
Hyaline, fibrous, elastic
119
Most abundant cartilage in body; at ends of long bones, anterior ends of ribs, nose, parts of larynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchial tubes, embryonic and fetal skeleton; weakest type of cartilage and can be fractured
Hyaline Cartilage
120
Most abundant cartilage in body; at ends of long bones, anterior ends of ribs, nose, parts of larynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchial tubes, embryonic and fetal skeleton.
Hyaline cartilage
121
s chondrocytes among clearly visible thick bundles of collagen fibers within extracellular matrix; lacks
perichondrium.
Location Pubic symphysis (where hip bones join anteriorly), intervertebral discs, menisci (cartilage pads) of knee, portions of
tendons that insert into cartilage.
Function Support and joining structures together. Strength and rigidity make it the strongest type of cartilage
Fibrous Cartilage
122
perichondrium
present.
Location Lid on top of larynx (epiglottis), part of external ear (auricle), auditory tubes.
Function Provides strength and elasticity; maintains shape of certain structures.
Elastic cartilage
123
store calcium and phosphorus; house red bone marrow, which produces blood cells; and
contain yellow bone marrow, a storage site for triglycerides.
bones
124
basic unit of compact bone
osteon
125
Four parts of osteon
bone lamellae, bone lacunae, osteocytes, bone canaliculi, osteonic canal
126
126
Liquid connective tissue
Blood
127
formed elements
red blood cells
(erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes)
128
Two processes of tissue generation
Regeneration and fibrosis
129
The fibroblasts synthesize
collagen and other extracellular matrix materials that aggregate
to form scar tissue, a process known as
fibrosis
130
Three factors affect tissue repair
nutrition, blood circulation, age
131
abnormal joining of tissues.
adhesions
132
Inflammation, granulation, fibrosis
133
Local factors affecting wound healing
Infection, Location, Mechanical pattern, size, type of injury, blood supply, radiation
134
Systemic affecting wound healing
age, nutritional status, diabetic, glucocorticoid, hematological abnormalities
135
strength of 1st week
10% only
136
3 months after
70-80%
137
slow regeneration
skeletal, cardiac, nervous
138
Developmental aspects if tissues and cells
growth (continuous throughout puberty), tissue injury and ageing
139
Amitotic after birth
nervous tissue
140
Amitotic after puberty
muscle tissue
141
break, tear, over stretch, bruises (tissue alteration); extreme temperature
inury
142
cell death
necrosis
143
chemical, mechanical, genetical, growth spurts, accumulated damage
ageing
144
Cellular senescence
50x
145
accumulation of cellular senescence
cellular ageing
146
Abnormal mass of tissues
Neoplasm
147
increase in cell number = increase cell volume; mitotic division
Hyperplasia
148
no mitotic
149
conversion
metaplasia
150
disorderly growth of cells
dysplasia
151
Enlargement or organs due to increase in number of cells due to
benign hyperplasia; bone marrow, enlarged mammary
152
normal
Physiological
153
not normal
Pathologic
154
4 morphological adaptations
atrophy, hypertrophy, metaplasia, dysplasia
155
not true adaptations; abnormal changes in shapes, size, organisation; atypical hyperplasia
dysplasia
156
hormonal hyperplasia (proliferation of glandular epithelium of breast duringb)
physiologic hyperplasia
157
Pregnant uterus
physiologic
158
Part of the liver is removed= regeneration of hepatocyte; nephrons
Compensatory hyperplasia
159
endometrium (reparative hyperplasia)= hormonal
pathologic
160
