Chapter 2 Flashcards
Two systems of thinking
System 1: Intuitive System 2: Analytical/rational
System 1: Intuitive
Fast
Little effort
Can be faulty
Thoughts can arise from feeling/emotion
System 2: Analytical/rational
Slow
Effortful
Problem Solving
Scientific Method
Variable(s) are: Measurable constructs (e.g., height, wight) and are operationally defined.
Operational definition
What the variable is and how it will be measured.
Measures Reliability
Consistent results
Test-retest reliability: Consistent similar results though re-test.
Measures Validity
Measure what is intended
Make sure the test/tool used measures what it’s meant to measure
Naturalistic Observation
Positives and negatives
Observe behavior in real-world setting
-High external validity (Generalizable)
-Low internal validity (Can’t infer cause-and-effect)
Case Study
Positives and negatives
Specific individuals observed for the study
-Uncommon Phenomenon can be examined
-Lacks generalizability
Self-report and surveys
Positives and Negatives
Participants reflect on their own characteristics and provide their views
-Quick way to gather large amounts of data
-Potential for biased or dishonest responses
-Concerns with survey question wording
Observer Report:
Observer Reports are simple, informational reports. In most cases, a 1 page report or a couple of paragraphs that list the “headlines”
Halo and Horns effect
Halo:After rating someone as having a positive characteristics, there is a tendency to then perceive other characteristics in a positive way.
Horns: After rating someone as having a negative characteristic, there is a tendency to then perceive other characteristics in a negative way.
Correlation
Positives and Negatives
-Measures the association between two variables
-Identifies if, and how variables are associated
-Can’t infer cause-and-effect
-Positive Correlation
High Values of one variable associated with high values for the other variable. (They correlate and the variables go in the same direction)
-Negative Correlation:
high values of one variable associated with low values for the other variable.
(They correlate but the variables do NOT go in the same direction)
-Zero Correlation
Values for one variable are not associated with values of the other variable (No correlation at all) (No pattern)
Perception of an association where none exists (Bringing your lucky pen to an exam)
Illusory Correlation:
Establishes a causal relationship between variables through:
1)Random assignment
2)Manipulation of independent variable
Experimental Design
Independent and Dependent Variable
Independent Variable: Variable manipulated
Dependent Variable: Measured to determine whether the manipulation of independent variable has any effect
Rule of thumb, a mental shortcut. works with system 1 of thinking
heuristic
Which term refers to the type of descriptive statistic that tells us where the scores tend to cluster in a set of measurements
Central tendency
When we perceive a reliable association between two events (although none exists), such as the presence of rainy weather and arthritis flare-ups, we are experiencing the phenomenon called __________.
illusory correlation
Which ethical procedure is being followed when researchers let test subjects know what they are likely to encounter during an experiment before the subjects agree to participate?
Informed consent
To be sure that we are not fooled by popular media reports about psychology research, we should be on the lookout for __________.
sharpening and levelling
You want to design a study that will be high in internal validity and will allow you to infer causation. Which research design should you use?
Experimental design
A central issue in considering medical and psychological research using animals is balancing the advances gained through such experimentation against __________.
the costs in death and suffering they produce for the test subjects
The process of soliciting feedback from qualified experts in a research area prior to publishing the results of a research study is called __________.
peer review
We say that a result has practical significance if it __________.
makes a difference in the real world
Dr. Sardonicus is designing a case study in order to demonstrate that a particular psychological phenomenon actually happens. Case studies can be useful in providing this kind of demonstration, also known as __________.
existence proof
Which term describes a curved line on a graph that can be bell shaped, negatively skewed, or positively skewed?
Distribution curve
The Tri-Council Policy Statement indicates that psychologists must take reasonable steps to __________.
avoid harming participants
You are reading an article in a psychology journal that has an accompanying, two-dimensional graph with dots representing data from individual people. This is called a __________.
scatterplot
Because carefully controlled studies generate more trustworthy results, the high internal validity of these studies can lead to __________.
A.
high external validity
The two kinds of statistics used by psychologists are descriptive statistics and __________ statistics.
inferential
Which group at every major college and university reviews all research carefully to protect participants against potential abuses?
Investigative research board
The type of thinking that allows us to operate on “autopilot” and make snap decisions is called __________.
intuitive
Questionnaires fall into which category of measurement tools?
Self-report measures
Megan wanted to get a measure of the amount of variability in her set of data, so she subtracted the lowest score from the highest score. Megan computed the __________.
range
What is one benefit of the case study method of research?
It provides existence proofs.
For psychologists, what is the central question concerning the use of polygraphs?
Do they have high validity?
Confounding Variable
A variable that you didn’t expect that impacts your Findings
Placebo Effect:
Improvement because of one’s expectation for improvement.
Nocebo Effect
Harm due to the expectation of harm. (Opposite of placebo, instead of thinking there was improvement there was harm)
Experimenter Expectancy Effect
Researcher’s expectations influence the outcome of the findings.
How to prevent Experimenter Expectancy Effect
Prevent this by conducting a “double blind” study in which both the participant and researcher are unaware who gets treatment
Demand Characteristics
Responses are influenced by the participants’ assumption as to what the hypothesis is. Participant starts responding off of assumption of what the study is all about.
How to prevent Demand Characteristics
Reduce the possibility of this occurring by disguising the study’s purpose
Research Ethics Board (REB)
made up of a minimum of 5 individuals
4 are a part of the research, 1 is a community member
Always have to model your study/research to be allowed by the REB
Informed Consent
Participants need to understand what is involved before they participate to the study.
Protection from harm and discomfort
they have to leave the same way they came
Debriefing
At the end of the study, the participants will be informed completely of what the study is and what the results will be used for. Admit any deception.
Canadian Councial on Animal Care (CCAC)
Majority of animal research is conducted with rodents and birds
Concerns with how findings generalize to humans.
Descriptive Statistics
Numerical summary of the data set analysis
Mean
Average Score
Median
middle score
Mode
most frequently occurring score
Negative Skew
will show that it was a Easy exam down up
Positive Skew
will show it was a Harder Exam up down
Bell Curve
shows average upside down U
Inferential statistics
tests the difference between the experimental and control groups
Statistical significance
often set to a probability of p<.05
The two Types of Statistics
Inferential statistics and Descriptive Statistics
An unmeasured variable causes an observed correlation between two other variables. Which term best characterizes this phenomenon?
Third variable problem
What does the mode represent?
Central tendency
Which term refers to the measure of dispersion that takes into account how far each data point is from the mean?
Standard deviation
