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BIOL1191 > Chapter 16 - Sensory, Motor & Integrative Systems > Flashcards

Chapter 16 - Sensory, Motor & Integrative Systems Flashcards

1
Q

Sensation

A

Awareness of body conditions

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2
Q

Perception

A

Conscious awareness of sensation

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3
Q

Modality

A

Any specific sensory entity

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4
Q

4 Components of Sensation

A
  1. Stimulation
  2. Transduction
  3. Conduction
  4. Integration
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5
Q

Stimulation

A
  • Events caused by a stimulus

- Stimulus = environmental change which activates sensory neurons

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6
Q

Transduction

A
  • When a sensory receptor/sensory organ converts one kind of signal/stimulus into another
  • Can be caused by a generator potential or a receptor potential
  • Can result in either depolarization or hyperpolarization
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7
Q

Generator Potential

A

Depolarization of dendrites of 1st order sensory neuron

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8
Q

Receptor Potential

A

Graded change in membrane potential due to receptor stimulation

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9
Q

Conduction

A

When an action potential (caused by generator/receptor potential) travels towards the CNS

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10
Q

Integration

A

When action potentials are translated into sensations in the CNS

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11
Q

Sensory Coding

A

When a type of sensation is identified by which fiber carries the incoming message to the CNS

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12
Q

Sensory Receptors

A
  • Only respond well to one type of stimulus (due to selectivity)
  • Receptive field = area monitored by receptor cell
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13
Q

Adaptation

A
  • Decreased receptor sensitivity caused by constant stimulus

- 2 mechanisms: peripheral adaptation & central adaptation

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14
Q

2 Receptor Types Based on Adaptation

A
  1. Tonic Receptors = Slow adapting; always sending signals to CNS for as long as they’re being stimulated
  2. Phasic Receptors = Fast adapting; Only activated when their monitored signals change, then quickly adapt
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15
Q

2 Receptor Types Based on Complexity

A
  1. Simple Receptors

2. Complex Receptors

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16
Q

Simple Receptors

A
  • Associated w/ general senses: temperature, pain, tactile sense & proprioception
  • 2 Types: Free nerve endings (sense pain, temperature, & touch) & Encapsulated nerve endings (sense touch & vibration)
  • Distributed throughout body
  • Cutaneous sensations = Combo of temperature, pain, & tactile sense
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17
Q

Complex Receptors

A
  • Associated w/ special senses: olfaction, gustation, vision, equilibrium & audition
  • All utilize special sensory receptor cells (except olfaction)
  • Olfactory receptors = bipolar neurons w/ olfactory hairs
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18
Q

3 Receptor Types Based on Location

A
  1. Exteroceptors
  2. Interoceptors
  3. Proprioceptors
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19
Q

Exteroceptors

A

Receptors that receive stimuli from outside the body

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20
Q

Interoceptors

A
  • Receptors that receive stimuli from inside the body (not usually conscious)
  • Examples: baroreceptors & chemoreceptors
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21
Q

Proprioceptors

A
  • Receive info from muscles, tendons, joints & inner ear labyrinth
  • Are tonic receptors
  • Send brain info on muscle tension, weight discrimination, movements & position of body + body parts
  • 3 different types
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22
Q

3 Types of Proprioceptors

A
  1. Muscle Spindles
  2. Golgi Tendon Organs
  3. Joint Kinesthetic Receptors
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23
Q

Muscle Spindles

A
  • Intrafusal fibers wrapped by sensory neuron’s dendrites

- Functions: monitor muscle length, perform stretch reflexes & set muscle tone

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24
Q

Golgi Tendon Organs

A
  • Protect tendons & muscles from excessive stretch
  • Capsule w/ CT fibers wrapped by dendrites of sensory neuron
  • Located in tendons
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25
Q

Joint Kinsethetic Receptors

A

Cause joint muscles to relax under excessive stress

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26
Q

6 Receptor Types Based on Stimulus

A
  1. Mechanoreceptors
  2. Thermoreceptors
  3. Nociceptors
  4. Photoreceptors
  5. Chemoreceptors
  6. Osmoreceptors
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27
Q

Mechanoreceptors

A
  • Respond to physical distortion of their cell membranes

- 3 subtypes

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28
Q

3 Subtypes of Mechanoreceptors

A
  1. Tactile Receptors
  2. Baroreceptors
  3. Proprioceptors
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29
Q

Tactile Receptors

A
  • Receptors that detect touch, pressure &/or vibration

- 4 different examples

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30
Q

5 Examples of Tactile Receptors

A
  1. Hair Root Plexus
  2. Meissner’s Corpuscle
  3. Merkel’s Tactile Disc
  4. Ruffini’s Corpuscle
  5. Pacinian Corpuscles
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31
Q

Hair Root Plexus

A
  • Found around hair follicles

- Detect movement of hair strands

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32
Q

Meissner’s Corpuscle

A
  • Located in dermal papillae
  • Detects discriminative touch & vibration
  • Rapidly-adapting/phasic
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33
Q

Merkel’s Tactile Disc

A
  • Contact Merkel cells of stratum basale
  • Detect discriminative touch & pressure
  • Slowly-adapting/tonic
  • AKA “Type 1 Cutaneous Mechanoreceptors”
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34
Q

Ruffini’s Corpuscle

A
  • Found in palms & soles
  • Detect heavy touch & pressure
  • Slowly-adapting/tonic
  • AKA “Type 2 Cutaneous Mechanoreceptors”
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35
Q

Pacinian Corpuscles

A
  • Located in various body parts

- Detect pressure & vibration

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36
Q

Itch & Tickle Receptors

A
  • Free nerve endings

- Function as inflammatory mediators (e.g., histamine & bradykinin)

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37
Q

Baroreceptors

A
  • Respond to pressure changes in walls of hollow organs
  • Rapidly-adapting/phasic in blood vessels
  • Help coordinate reflex activities in visceral organs (e.g., reflex peristalsis in GI Tract)
38
Q

Thermoreceptors

A
  • Free nerve endings
  • Rapidly-adapting/phasic
  • Separate receptors for warm & cold. Cold (10-40 C) in stratum basale; warm (32-48 C) in dermis.
39
Q

Nociceptors

A
  • Respond to painful stimuli
  • Damaged tissues release of prostaglandins, kinins &/ or K+ (Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs; NSAIDs)
  • Located everywhere in the body except the brain
  • Slowly-adapting/tonic
40
Q

4 Different Types of Pain

A
  1. Fast Pain
  2. Slow Pain
  3. Somatic Pain
  4. Visceral Pain
41
Q

Fast Pain

A
  • Carried by myelinated A fibers
  • Occurs only in skin
  • Generally localized
42
Q

Slow Pain

A
  • Carried by unmyelinated C fibers
  • Tends to increase in intensity over time
  • Occurs typically in deeper tissues
43
Q

Somatic Pain

A
  • Found superficially in the skin

- Also found in skeletal muscles, joints, tendons & fascia

44
Q

Visceral Pain

A

-Pain exclusively found in visceral organs

45
Q

Referred Pain

A

Visceral pain felt in a site other than the place of origin

*Mechanism: The same spinal cord segment(s) serves place of origin & site where pain referred

46
Q

Photoreceptors

A
  • Receptors stimulated by light

- Examples: rods & cones found in the retinae of eyes

47
Q

Chemoreceptors

A
  • Found in mouth & nose
  • Also found in carotid & aortic bodies
  • Info goes to respiratory control centers
  • Monitor chemical composition of body fluid
48
Q

Osmoreceptors

A

Monitor solute/solvent ratio of biological fluids

49
Q

Posterior column-Medial lemniscus (PCML) pathway

A
  • Conducts sensory info for tactile sensation (discriminative touch, pressure & vibration) & proprioception
  • Origin of sensations include limbs, trunk, neck & posterior head
50
Q

Route of PCML

A
  1. 1st order relay neuron travels along Posterior root ganglion -> Posterior white column (Gracile fasciculus & cuneate fasciculus) -> Medulla (Gracile & cuneate nuclei)
  2. 2nd order relay neuron decussates, then ascends via medial lemniscus -> Ventral posterior nucleus
  3. 3rd order relay neuron (ventral nucleus) -> Primary somatosensory cortex
  • Gracile tract conducts sensory info from lower limbs & trunk to cuneate tract
  • Cuneate tract conducts sensory info from upper limbs, trunk, neck & posterior head
51
Q

Anterolateral (AKA “Spinothalamic”) Pathways

A
  • Conducts sensory info fro pain, temperature, tickle, itch, crude touch & deep pressure
  • Origins of sensation include limbs, trunk, neck & posterior head
52
Q

Route of Spinothalamic Pathway

A
  1. 1st order sensory neuron travels along posterior root ganglion -> Spinal cord (Posterior gray horn)
  2. 2nd order relay neuron decussates, then ascends spinal cord in spinothalamic tracts -> Ventral posterior nucleus
  3. 3rd order relay neuron (Ventral posterior nucleus) -> Primary somatosensory cortex
53
Q

Trigeminothalamic Pathway

A
  • Conducts sensory info for tactile sensations, pain & temperature
  • Origin of sensations include face, oral & nasal cavities & teeth
54
Q

Route of Trigeminothalamic Pathway

A
  1. 1st order sensory neuron travels via trigeminal nerve -> cell body in trigeminal ganglion, which projects -> Nuclei of pons/ medulla
  2. 2nd order relay neuron from pons/ medulla nuclei decussates, then ascends via trigeminothalamic tract -> Ventral posterior nucleus
  3. 3rd order relay neuron from ventral posterior nucleus -> Primary somatosensory cortex
55
Q

Sensory Pathways to the Cerebellum

A
  • Anterior & Posterior Spinocerebellar tracts are responsible for conduction
  • Travel to lateral white columns in spinal cord
  • Conducts sensory info on unconscious proprioception from muscles, joints & tendons of lower limbs & trunk required by cerebellum
56
Q

Simple & Complex Motor Pathways

A
  • Simple Pathways: Upper Motor Neuron & Lower Motor Neuron
  • Complex Pathways: UMNs + interneurons + LMNs
57
Q

Upper Motor Nuerons (UMNs)

A
  • UMNs arising from motor cortex initiate voluntary skeletal muscle activity
  • UMNs arising from red nucleus, vestibular nucleus, superior colliculus/ reticular formation control muscle tone, posture & balance
  • Receives inputs from basal nuclei & cerebellum
  • Most UMNs synapse indirectly w/ LMNs via local circuit nuerons
58
Q

Lower Motor Neorons (LMNs)

A
  • LMNs arising from brainstem extend axons via cranial nerves to skeletal muscles of face & head
  • LMNs arising from spinal cord extend axons via a spinal nerve to skeletal muscles of limbs & trunk
59
Q

Spastic Paralysis

A
  • Occurs due to UMN injury

- Symptoms include exaggerated reflexes & increased muscle tone

60
Q

Flaccid Paralysis

A
  • Occurs due to LMN injury

- Symptoms include absent reflexes & decreased/absent muscle tone

61
Q

Pyramidal Cells

A

UMNs of motor cortex

62
Q

3 Parts of the Motor Cortex

A
  1. Primary Motor Cortex
  2. Premotor Cortex (Includes premotor area, Broca’s motor speech area & frontal eyefield area)
  3. Supplementary Motor Area (Found midline atnerior to precentral gyrus; involved in planning & coordination)

*Pyramidal cell axons form tracts that project to nuclei of brainstem & spinal cord where they synapse w/ LMNs, either directly/ via local circuit neurons

63
Q

Function of the Motor Cortex

A

To regulate muscle tone & coordinate skilled movements

64
Q

2 Types of Direct (AKA “Pyramidal”) Motor Pathways

A
  1. Corticobulbar Pathway

2. Corticospinal Pathway

65
Q

Corticbulbar Pathway

A
  • Location of UMNs: Motor Cortex (Pyramidal Cells)
  • Destination: Motor nuclei of cranial nerves 3-7 & 9-12 in the brainstem
  • Site of cross-over: Brainstem
  • Actions: Voluntary control over skeletal muscles of eye, jaw, tongue, face, pharynx & some neck muscles
66
Q

Corticospinal Pathway (Lateral & Anterior)

A
  • Location of UMNs: Motor Cortex (Pyramidal Cells)
  • Destination: Anterior gray horns of spinal cord
  • Site of decussation: Inferior end of medulla (forms LATERAL corticospinal tracts) OR passing through the medulla (forms ANTERIOR corticospinal tracts; crosses over via anterior white commissure)
  • Actions: Voluntary control over skeletal muscles of contra-lateral limbs & trunk (Lateral -> Controls distal limb parts; Anterior -> Controls trunk & proximal limb parts)
67
Q

Indirect (AKA “Extrapyramidal”) Motor Pathways

A
  • Axons of UMNs w/ cell bodies in brainstem nuclei

- Location: Anterior & lateral white columns

68
Q

4 Types of Indirect (AKA “Extrapyramidal”) Motor Pathways

A
  1. Rubrospinal Tracts
  2. Tectospinal Tracts
  3. Vestibulospinal Tracts
  4. Lateral & Medial Reticulospinal Tracts
69
Q

Rubrospinal Tracts

A
  • Location of UMNs cell bodies: Red nucleus
  • Destination of UMN axons: Anterior gray horns of spinal cord
  • Site of decussation: Brainstem
  • Actions: Voluntary movements of distal upper limb muscles
70
Q

Tectospinal Tracts

A
  • Location of UMNs cell bodies: Superior colliculus
  • Destination: Anterior gray horns of cervical spinal cord
  • Site of decussation: Brainstem
  • Actions: Involuntary regulation of contralateral skeletal muscle activity (Moves eyes, head neck + trunk in response to visual & auditory stimuli)
71
Q

Vestibulospinal Tracts

A
  • Location of UMNs cell bodies: Vestibular nuclei of pons & medulla
  • Destination: Anterior gray horns of spinal cord
  • Site of decussation: None
  • Actions: Involuntary control of ipsilateral trunk & proximal limb skeletal muscles (Balance + posture in response to head movements)
72
Q

Lateral & Medial Reticulospinal Tracts

A
  • Location of UMNs cell bodies: Reticular formation
  • Destination: Anterior gray horns of spinal cord
  • Site of decussation: None
  • Actions: Involuntary control of ipsilateral trunk & proximal limb skeletal muscles (Responsible for posture + muscle tone in response to ongoing movement)
73
Q

2 Integrative Functions of the Cerebrum

A
  1. Sleep

2. Learning + Memory

74
Q

Sleep

A
  • Arousable state of partial unconsciousness
  • Functions to maintain mental health, memory & learing
  • Dominated by the parasympathetic division of the ANS
75
Q

Mechanism of Sleep

A
  • Blockade of ACh-releasing neurons of the Reticular Activating System
  • May be caused by adenosine binding to A1 receptors
  • Methylxanthines (Caffeine & thephylline) prevent adenosine binding to A1 receptors
  • RAS blockade also by melatonin
76
Q

2 Components of Sleep

A
  1. Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM) Sleep

2. Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep

77
Q

NREM Sleep

A
  • Stage 1: Transition between wakefulness & sleep (Possible hypnagogic hallucinations
  • Stage 2: Light sleep
  • Stage 3: Moderately deep sleep, growth hormone released (+Delta waves emitted)
  • Stage 4: Deep sleep; growth hormone released; body repairs; possible sleepwalking, night-terrors
78
Q

3 Parts that Control NREM Sleep

A
  1. Pre-optic Area
  2. Basal forebrain
  3. Medulla
79
Q

REM Sleep

A
  • Occurs about every 90 mins.
  • 3 to 5 times/night
  • REM sleep duration lengthens w/ each cycle
  • Dreaming also occurs
  • Eyeballs move rapidly back & forth w/ eyelids closed
  • High brain blood flow & O2 yse
  • Function: To help w/ brain development
80
Q

Typical Sleep Cycle

A

NREM1 -> NREM2 -> NREM3 -> NREM4 -> NREM3 -> NREM2 -> REM -> NREM1 -> Wake or repeat

81
Q

Learning

A

Acquisition of new information, behaviors, or skills

82
Q

Memory

A

Ability to store, retain & retreive learned info

83
Q

4 Brain Parts Contributing to Memory

A
  1. Frontal, parietal, temporal + occipital lobes
  2. Limbic system
    - A. Hippocampus stores spatial + explicit memory
    - B. Amygdala stores emotional memory
  3. Cerebellum & basal nuclei store procedural + implicit memory
  4. Anterior & Medial thalamic nuclei
84
Q

3 Types of Memory

A
  1. Immediate (AKA “Sensory”) Memory
  2. Short-term Memory
  3. Long-term Memory
85
Q

Immediate (AKA “Sensory”) Memory

A
  • Very short-term retention of sensory input received by brain
  • Electro-chemical events occurring in the hippocampus, mammillary bodies, and thalamic nuclei
86
Q

Short-term Memory

A
  • Info retained for a few minutes
  • Limited capacity
  • Electro-chemical events occurring in the hippocampus, mammillary bodies, and thalamic nuclei
  • Converted to long-term memories by reinforcement
87
Q

Long-term Memory

A
  • More permanent memory
  • Frequent memory retrieval will reinforce it (“Memory consolidation”)
  • If memory not consolidated, eventually lost
  • Newly-formed long-term memory lost following general anaesthesia, brain hypoxia, and ECT
88
Q

Mechanism of Long-term Memory

A
  • Structural/functional changes occur in neural circuitry due to plasticity of the brain
  • Changes include increased:
    1. Protein synthesis
    2. No. of Pre-synap. terminals
    3. Size of synaptic end bulbs
    4. Quantity of neurotransmitter stored
    5. No. of dendritic branches + “spines”
    6. No. of synaptic connections
89
Q

Calpain

A

Proteolytic enzyme; degrades spines of dendrites, thus, leading to memory loss

90
Q

Long-term Potentiation (LTP)

A
  • Persistent enhancement of neural transmission caused by high-frequency stimulation of chemical synapses in hippocampus
  • Glutamate causes N.O. release from post-synaptic neuron
  • N.O. diffuses into pre-synap. neuron -> circuitry changes
  • LTP important for learning & memory

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