chapter 13 (module 4) Flashcards
the adaptive immunity is the product of a dual system, the
T and B lymphocytes
the ability of the body to react with countless foreign substances
immunocompetence
molecules that can be seen and identified by the immune system
antigens
Antigens may or may not provoke an immune response after being sensed by the immune system, if they do provoke a response they can be called ________.
immunogens
these molecules are usually protein or polysaccharide molecules on or inside all cells or viruses
antigens
the precise molecular group of an antigen that defines its specificity and triggers the immune response
-> primary signal that a molecule is foreign
epitope
adaptive immunity
specificity***
response is focused on a single specific antigen
adaptive immunity
diversity
there is always at least one cell that can react against any antigem
adaptive immunity
inductibility
only turned on when triggered
adaptive immunity
tolerance
does not react with self antigens
adaptive immunity
clonality
generates millions of cells with same specificity
adaptive immunity
memory***
rapid mobilization of lymphocytes preprogrammed to recall their first engagement with the antigen
the elegance and complexity of immune function are largely due to _______ working closely with ________
lymphocytes and phagocytes
adaptive immune response
stage one: lymphocyte development and clonal deletion
- arise from the same stem cell type but diverge into T (thymus) and B cells (specialized bone marrow sites)
- T and B cells constantly migrate in and out of lymphoid organs
adaptive immunity
stage two: entrance and presentation of antigens and clonal selection
- foreign cells enters tissues
- tissue macros ingest it and may induce inflamm response
- tissue dendritic cells ingest the antigen and migrate it to the nearest lymphoid organ (often the lymph nodes)
- the lymphoid organs process the antigen and present it to T and B lymphocytes
- B cells may need help from Helper T cells to initiate response
role of markers
each have a distinct and significant role in detection, recognition, and cell communication
-serve to activate different components of immunity
a set of genes in mammals that produces molecules on surfaces of cells that differentiate among different individuals in the species
major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
this genes complex gives rise to a series of glycoproteins found on all cells except RBCs
also called the human leukocyte antigen (HLA)
MHC genes
major histocompatibility complex
three classes of MHC genes
- Class I genes code for markers that appear on all nucleated cells
- Class II MHC genes code for immune regulatory markers (found on macrophages, dendritic cells, and B cells, T cells)
- Class II MHC genes encode proteins involved with the complement system, among others.
CD molecules
cluster of differentiation, naming scheme for many of the cell surface molecules (well over 400 have been names)
lymphocyte markers
frequently called receptors because it emphasizes there major role in accepting or grasping antigens in some form
-B cells have receptors that bind antigens and T cells have receptors that bind antigens that have been processed and complexed with MHC molecules on their presenting cell surface
adaptive immunity
stage three: challenging B and T cells with antigens
- when challenged by an antigen B and T cells proliferate and differentiate
- the multiplication of a particular lymphocyte creates a clone, or group of genetically identical cells, some of which are memory cells that will ensure future reactiveness against that antigen
adaptive immunity
stage 3a: How T cells respond to antigen
-T cell types and responses are extremely varied
- when activated by an antigen, a T cell gives rise to a variety of different cells with different roles:
1. Helper T cells that activate macrophages, assist B cells, and help activate cytotoxic T cells
2. Regulatory T cells that control T-cell response by secreting anti-inflammatory cytokines or preventing proliferation
3. Cytotoxic T cells that lead to the destruction of infected host cells and other foreign cells
*T cells do not produce antibodies
adaptive immunity
Stage 3b: How B Cells Respond to Antigen: Release of Antibodies
when a B cell is activated or sensitized by an antigen, it DIVIDES, giving rise to plasma cells, each with the same reactive profile
- plasma cells release antibodies into the tissue and blood
- when these antibodies attach to the antigen for which they are specific, the antigen is marked for destruction or neutralization
13.2
Stage I: The development of Lymphocyte Diversity
t cells reach maturity in the thymus, and also the ___________
GI tract
In addition to the antigen-specific T cell receptor, all mature T lymphocytes express coreceptors called ___, which surround the T-cell receptor and assist in binding.
CD3
T cells express CD3, ___, or a ___ coreceptor.
CD4, CD8
___ is an accessory receptor protein mostly found on T Helper cells that helps the T cell receptor bind to MHC class II molecules
CD4
___ is mostly found on cytotoxic T cells, and it helps bind MHC class II molecules
CD8
Contrasting Properties of B and T Cells
Site of Maturation:
T- thymus
B- bone marrow
Specific Surface Markers:
T-T-cell receptor, several CD molecule
B- immunoglobulin
Circulation in Blood
T- high numbers
B- low numbers
Receptors for Antigens
T- T-cell receptor
B- B cell receptor (immunoglobulins)
Distribution in Lymphatic Organs
T- paracortical sites (interior to the follicles)
B- cortex (in follicles)
Require Antigen Presented with MHC
T- Yes
B- No
Product of Antigen Stimulation
T- several types of activated T cells and memory cells
B- plasma cells with memory cells
General Functions
T- cells activated to help other immune cells, suppress/kill abnormal cells, mediate hypersensitivity, synthesize cytokines
B- production of antibodies to inactivate, neutralize, target antigens
DiGeorge Syndrome
thymus deficiency
Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Syndromes (SCID)
group of genetic disorders resulting from defective hematopoietic precursor cells, causing a deficiency of both B and T lymphocytes
Cancer (thymomas and thymic lymphomas)
tumors that originate from thymic epithelial cells (thymomas)
tumors originating from thymocytes (thymic lymphomas)
primary tumors affecting the thymus
B cells develop in the bone marrow, and as a result of gene __________ and __________, hundreds of millions of distinct B cells develop
modification and selection
it is estimated that each human produces antibodies with ___ trillion different specificities.
10
large glycoprotein molecules that serve as the antigen receptors of B cells, and when secreted, as antibodies
-> the specific B-Cell receptor
immunoglobulins
specific regions at the ends of the antibody “Y” molecule that recognize specific antigens; highly variable in shape so they can fit a wide variety of antigens
antigen binding site
variable (V) region
the antigen-binding fragment of an immunoglobulin molecule, consisting of a combination of heavy and light chains whose molecular conformation is specific for the antigen
what process is responsible for the increase in numbers of lymphocytes?
clonal expansion after antigen encounter causes B cells and T cells to proliferate
receptor similarities and differences between B and T cells
T is similar to B in that
- its receptor is formed from genetic modification
- it has variable and constant regions
- it is inserted into the membrane
- it has an antigen binding site formed from parallel polypeptide chains
however, unlike the B cell receptor, T-cell receptor is relatively small and is NEVER secreted
a conceptual explanation for the development of lymphocyte specificity and variety during immune maturation
clonal selection
after activation, the B or T cell multiplies rapidly in a process called _______ _______
clonal expansion
what are the two important features of clonal selection?
- Lymphocyte specificity is preprogrammed, existing in the genetic makeup before an antigen has ever entered the tissues
- Each genetically distinct lymphocyte expresses only a single specificity and can react to that chemical epitope
the lymphocytes that develop a specificity for self molecules are eliminated in a process called _______ _______, and leads to ________ _________.
clonal deletion
immune tolerance
mitotic division of a specific lymphocyte expand into a larger population of lymphocytes all bearing the same specificity, with the goal to fight the specific epitope they recognized
clonal expansion
13.3 Stage II: Presentation of Antigens
an antigen must be perceived as ________
foreign
materials that serve as good immunogens
proteins and polypeptides (enzymes, cell surface structures, exotoxins)
lipoproteins (cell membranes)
glycoproteins (blood cell markers)
nucleoproteins (DNA complexed to proteins but not pure DNA)
polysaccharides (certain bacterial capsules) and lipopolysaccharides
characteristics of “good” immunogens (provoking a strong response)
a. their chemical composition
b. their context–meaning what type of cytokines are present
c. their size
we can generalize that ____ antigens are better than ____ antigens. however a large size alone is not sufficient for immunogenicity
- large
2. small
poor immunogens
trisaccharide
polypeptide
->small molecules and linear molecules are less likely to be good immunogens
an incomplete or partial antigen, cannot stimulate a full immune response
hepten
True or False
A hapten can link to a larger carrier molecule and the two combined can develop immunogenicity; the hepten serves as the epitope
true
List some examples of haptens
drugs, metals, and ordinarily innocuous household, industrial, and environmental chemicals
many haptens __________ develop antigenicity in the body by combining with larger molecules such as serum proteins
inappropriately
cell surface molecules and markers that occur in some members of the same species but not others
-> are the basis for an individual’s blood group and major histocompatibility profile = responsible for incompatibilities that can occur in blood transfusion or organ grafting
Alloantigens
bacterial toxins that are potent stimuli for T cells and can be a factor in diseases such as toxic shock
->their presence can activate T cells at a rate 100 times greater than ordinary antigens = the result can be an overwhelming release of cytokines and cell death
superantigens
antigens that evoke allergic reactions
allergens
cells that grab the antigen-carrying microbe and ingest it, degrade it, and pass it’s antigens back out onto their membranes complexed with MHC-I or MHC-II markers, and then presented to T lymphocytes
antigen-presenting cells (APCs)
what three cells are APCs?
B cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells
-> dendritic being the most potent
most antigens must first be presented to T cells, even though they will eventually activate T and B cell systems.
However, a few antigens can trigger a response directly from B lymphocytes without APCs or T helper cells, what are these called?
T-cell-independent antigens
usually simple molecules such as carbs with many repeating and invariable determinant groups
ie. lipopolysaccharide from the cell wall of E. coli or polysaccharide from the capsule of Streptococcus pneumoniae, and molecules from rabies and Epstein-Barr virus
T-cell-independent antigens
list characteristics of antigens that optimize their immunogenicity
- Chemical composition
- Size
- what types of cytokines are present
list the types of cells that can act as antigen presenting cells
- Dendritic cells
- Macrophages
- B cells
describe how the immune system responds to alloantigens and superantigens
superantigens: activates an on overwhelming response from T cells causing cell death and too much release of cytokines ie. toxic shock
alloantigens: can cause incompatibilities during organ grafting and blood transfusions, can cause self-attack
13.4 Stages III and IV: T-Cell Response
why are T cells referred to as “restricted”
they require some type of MHC (self) recognition before they can be activated
what is the result of T cell stimulation?
mobilization of other T cells, B cells, and phagocytes
Memory T cells are some of the ______-_____ blood cells known
longest-lived
T Helper Cell 1
Co-receptor(s): CD4
Function:
- activates the cell-mediated immunity pathway
- secretes tumor necrosis factor and interferon gamma
- responsible for delayed hypersensitivity (allergy occurring several hours or days after contact)
- secretes IL-2