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Cognition > Chapter 13: Judgment, Decisions, And Reasoning > Flashcards

Chapter 13: Judgment, Decisions, And Reasoning Flashcards

1
Q

Judgement

A

Making decision or drawing a conclusion

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2
Q

Decisions

A

The process of making choices between alternatives

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3
Q

Reasoning

A

The process of drawing conclusion

- start with info and come to conclusions that go beyond that info

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4
Q

Inductive Reasoning

A
  • Reasoning based on observation
  • Reaching conclusions from evidence (probably true instead of definitely true)
  • Strength of argument
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5
Q

Inductive Reasoning: Strength of argument

A
  • Representativeness of observation: how well observation represents all numbers of that category
  • Number of observations
  • Quality of observatons
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6
Q

Heuristics

A

“Rules of thumb” that are likely to provide the correct answer to a problem, but are not foolproof

- Availability heuristic
- Representative heuristic
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7
Q

Availability Heuristic

A

Events that are more easily remembered are judged to be more probable than events that are less easily remembered
- Illusory correlations

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8
Q

Illusory correlations

A

Correlation that appears to exist between two events, but there is weak/no correlation
- ex. Stereotypes

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9
Q

Stereotypes

A

Oversimplified generalization about group/class of people that often focus on negative characteristics

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10
Q

Representative Heuristic

A

Probability that event A come from class B can be determined by how well A resembles properties of class B

- Use base rate information if it is all that is available
- Use descriptive information if available and disregard base rate information
- Conjunction rule
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11
Q

Base Rate

A

Relative proportions of different classes in population

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12
Q

Conjunction rule

A

Probability of conjunction two events cannot be higher than the probability of the single constituents

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13
Q

Law of Large Numbers

A

The larger the number of individuals randomly drawn from a population, the more representative the resulting group will be of the entire population

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14
Q

Myside Bias

A

Type of confirmation bias in which people generate and test hypothesis in way that is biased toward their own opinions and attitudes

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15
Q

Confirmation bias

A

Tendency to selectively look for information that conforms to out hypothesis and overlook information that argues against it

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16
Q

Backfire Effect

A

Occurs when individuals support for particular viewpoint becomes stronger when faced with corrective facts opposing their viewpoints

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17
Q

Deductive Reasoning

A

Reasoning that involves syllogisms in which conclusion logically follows from premises
- Syllogism

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18
Q

Syllogism

A
  • Two statements called premise
  • Third statement called conclusion
  • Valid if conclusion follows logically from its two premises
  • If two premises of a valid syllogism are true, the syllogism’s conclusion must be true
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19
Q

Categorical syllogism

A

Describe relation between two categories using all, no, or some

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20
Q

Validity

A

Quality of syllogism whose conclusion follows logically from its premises

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21
Q

Mental Model Approach

A
  • Deductive reasoning

- Determining if syllogisms are valid by creating mental models of situations based on premises of syllogism

22
Q

Mental model

A

Specific situation that is represented in a person’s mind

- Create model of situation
- Generate tentative conclusion about model
- Look for exceptions to falsify model
- Determine validity of syllogism
23
Q

Conditional Syllogisms

A

“If p, than q”

- Modus ponens - p therefore q
- Modus tollens- not q, therefore not p
24
Q

Wason Four-Card Problem

A

Conditional reasoning task developed by Wason that involves four cards

  • Determine minimum number of cards to turn over to test: if there is a vowel on one side, then there is an even number on other side
25
Q

Falsification Principle

A

Reasoning principle that to test a rule, it is necessary to look for situations that would falsify the rule

- Most participants fail to do this
- When problem is stated in concrete everyday terms, correct responses greatly increase
26
Q

Permission Schema

A

If A is satisfied, B can be carried out

- Used in the concrete versions
- People are familiar with rules
27
Q

Cosmides and Tooby (1992)

A
  • Created unfamiliar situations where cheating could occur
  • Participants did well
  • People may be more sensitive to situations involving permissions or regulation
  • From evolutionary perspective, being on the lookout for cheaters is important to survival
28
Q

Conditional Reasoning

A
  • Context is important

- Familiarity is not always important

29
Q

Expected Utility Theory

A
  • People are rational
  • If they have all relevant information, they will make a decision that results in the maximum expected utility (most beneficial results)
30
Q

Utility

A

Outcomes that achieve a person’s goals

- Maximum monetary payoff

31
Q

Decision Making: Utility Approach

A

Advantages:
- Specific procedures to determine the “best choice”

Problems

- Not necessarily money, people find value in other things
- Many decision do not maximize the probability of the best outcome
32
Q

Decision Making: Emotions affect decisions

A
  • Expected emotions
  • People inaccurately predict their emotions
    • Overestimate negative emotion
33
Q

Expected emotions

A

Emotions that people predict that they will feel concerning an outcome

34
Q

Risk Avoidance

A

Anxious people tend to avoid decision making

35
Q

Risk Aversion

A

Tendency to make decision that avoid risk

36
Q

Incidental emotions

A

Emotions not directly caused by act of having to make a decision
- Can affect one’s overall decision-making processes

37
Q

Decisions depend on how choices are presented

A
  • Opt-In Procedure
  • Opt-Out Procedure
  • Status Quo Bias
38
Q

Opt-In Procedure

A

Active step to be an organ donor

39
Q

Opt-Out Procedure

A

Organ donor unless request not to be

40
Q

Status Quo Bias

A

Tendency to do nothing when faced with making a decision

41
Q

Risky Decisions

A
  • Risk aversion strategy used when problem is states in terms of gains
  • Risk-taking strategy when problem is stated in terms of losses
42
Q

Risk aversion strategy

A

Governed by idea of avoiding risk

43
Q

Risk-taking strategy

A

Governed by idea of taking risks

44
Q

Framing Effect

A

Decisions are influenced by how choices are stated

45
Q

Framing effect can highlight one aspect of situation

A
  • When situations are framed in terms of gains, people tend toward a risk aversion strategy
  • When situations are framed in terms of losses, people tend toward a risk-taking strategy
46
Q

Neuroeconomics

A

Approach to studying decision making that combined research from psych, neuro, and Econ

  • One finding: decisions are influenced by emotions and those emotions are associated with activity in specific area of the brain
47
Q

Sanfey and coworkers (2003)

A
  • Measured brain activity
  • Ultimatum game
  • Often rejected low offers because they became angry that offers were unfair
  • Less angry with an “unfair” computer
48
Q

Ultimatum Game

A

Game in which proposer is given sum of money and makes offer to responder as to how many should be split between them
- Responder must choose to accept or reject offer

49
Q

Sanfey and coworkers (2003) brain activity

A
  • More activation of right anterior insula (connected with emotional states) participants more likely to reject more offers (3x stronger)
  • Emotion is important in decision making
  • PFC= implementing cognitively demanding decision to reject unfair offers
50
Q

Right anterior insula

A

Social and individual decision-making

51
Q

Dual Systems Approach to Thinking: Kahneman (2011)

A
  • System 1: fast, automatic, intuitive, nonconscious
    • Provides info for System 2
    • Linked to many errors
  • System 2: slower, deliberative, conscious, controlled
    • monitors info and takes over when too tough
52
Q

Dual Systems Approach to Thinking: Stanovich and West (2000)

A
  • Favor terms Type 1 processing and Type 2 processing
  • Similar characteristics as Kahneman’s System 1 and System 2
  • Favored by many researchers because better reflects the interconnected, distributed processing that occurs in the brain

Cognition (11 decks)

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