Chapter 11: Problem Solving Flashcards
what is a problem?
an obstacle between the initial state and the goal state, where the solution is not obvious
what is a well defined problem?
-has a clear starting point (initial state)
-has a clear end point (goal state)
-it is easy to see and clear when the goal is reached
what is an example of a well defined problem?
“How do I get to Einsteins?” You take a left, then a right, etc. and you will know because you can see the sign and smell the bagels.
what is an ill defined problem?
-lacks one or both points (initial and/or goal state)
“how do I get to Einsteins?” as a football recruit who has never been to campus before and doesn’t have a map
what is a wicked problem?
-no agreed starting point
-no agreed end point
(usually a social or cultural problem
-all possible solutions are neither simple or final
(usually large consequences for unsuccessful attempts)
in order to solve a well defined problem it needs to be…
represented correctly
-we need to understand all possible actions and restrictions
-we need to understand the initial and the goal states
what is an example of a well defined problem that is also represented well?
sudoku
in order to solve well defined problems, we need to adequately use our _____________ & ____________ _____________.
attention
&
working memory
what are the two types of problems?
- analytical based problems
- insight based problems
what is an analytical based problem
a problem that incorporates a gradual systemic process that leads to representation
“I’m getting closer”
bucket problem
what is an insight based problem?
sudden realization (insight) that leads to problem restructuring then representation
“aha moment”
chain problem
what is an example of a problem that can be both analytical and insight based at the same time?
crossword puzzles
Metcalfe (1987)
ppts solved an analytical algebra problem
-predicted difficulty 6/10
-higher confidence in solving
-gradual increase in warmth
ppts solved insight logic puzzles
-predicted difficulty 7.7/10
-perceived as more challenging
-sudden spike in warmth
what is there a lack of early progress in insight problems?
fixation
what is fixation?
tendency to focus on a specific problem characteristic which impedes the solution
usually is the result of strong association
ex. Dunckers candle problem-mounting the candle to the wall
Duncker (1945)
functional fixedness
-we usually see objects as only having one main function
ie) the function of the tack box is to hold tacks BUT it can also hold a candle we just cant see that
Adamson (1952)
Encouraging Insight
ppts given the candle problem
-given box with tacks inside (41% solved)
-given box with tacks on outside (86% solved)
Maier (1931)
Encouraging insight
ppts given the two string problem
-37 of 60 did not solve the problem on their own (62%)
-23 of those remaining 37 did solve after the researcher “bumped into the string”
why? they had never had that experience before so they had no schema.
what is a mental set?
like a toolbox of experience
made up of our assumptions and ideas about solving the problem based on our prior experience
“last time I did X, so I’ll try that again”
it helps only if the experience is applied correctly, but it hurts you if it is applied incorrectly
analytical problem solving
ex. the tower of hanoi problem
getting from the initial state to the goal state takes “operators” or actions that take us to intermediate states
you make a move than then assess the state
what is the number of possible intermediate states referred to as?
the problem space
what are problem solving strategies that can be implemented when one is approaching the goal state without knowing the problem space
- mean end analysis
- working backward
- using analogy
all examples use becoming a rockstar as the goal state
mean end analysis
method of problem solving that makes subgoal states to use to work forward
ex.
1. master an instrument
2. book small venue
3. get an agent
etc.
working backwards
method of problem solving that aims for states that occur just before a goal
ex. have an album
using analogy
a method of problem solving that uses relevant information from one problem to solve another
analogical transfer of a mental set
when you have a “source problem” or a problem you’ve solved before and a “target problem” or a new problem that benefits from a mental set (analogy)
Gick (1980)
illustration of the analogical transfer of a mental set
gave participants a target problem involving radiation treatment
then were given analogous dispersion stories
-just given the target problem (8% solved)
-parade dispersion (49% solved)
-attack dispersion (76% solved)
what are the two types of analogical failure that can occur?
- failure to notice and map
- failure to apply
analogical failure through failure to notice and map
-recognize a source problem exists
-does not connect the problem elements
ex. fortress=tumor, armies=ray
analogical failure through failure to apply
-does not generate a parallel solution
-does not understand the army can be split means the ray can be split
what is creativity
the ability to develop original work, techniques, or thoughts
what are the two types of creative thinking?
- convergent thinking
- divergent thinking
what is convergent thinking?
using creativity to come up with ONE solution to a problem (usually as quickly as possible)
what is divergent thinking?
using creativity to generate as many solutions as possible
how do we measure convergent thinking
the associative chain test (ACT)
what is the associative chain test
used to measure convergent thinking
continuously generate alternating associated (A) and dissociated (D) words without repeating them
measured through
1. response time
2. response commonness remoteness (pattern?)
ex. starting word: phone
1. call A
2. banana D
3. fruit A
4. Car D
5. wheel A
6. Carpet D
7. vacuum
how do we measure divergent thinking?
the alternate uses task (AUT)
what is the alternate uses task (AUT)
a way to measure divergent thinking
“how many uses for _______ can you think of?”
-fluency - total # of uses
-originality - distance from typical us
-flexibility - breadth of all uses (different/distinct answers)
-elaboration - detail of each use
Basadur (2001)
thought of creativity as a process
1. generate the problem- understand the facts of the problem
2. problem formulation- generate ideas that fit the problem
3. problem solving- educate and choose the best ideas
4. solution implementation- take action
high knowledge and creativity and problem solving
high knowledge allows you to understand the facts the the problem, generate conventional ideas from experience and analogy
but it causes less divergent thinking
low knowledge and creativity and problem solving
low knowledge does not allow you to understand the problem facts BUT it allows you to generate unconventional ideas
smith (1993)
knowledge can limit creativity
ppts drew imaginary creatures to inhabit a planet
asked to label parts of the creature
one group was shown 90 seconds of examples and those other shown nothing
both groups drew ~3 examples but when given examples with antennae, tails, and legs, 24% of the creatures had those features, Only 11% of the no examples group had those features
mullen (1991)
having examples is only effective when individuals work separately then pool all of their ideas together. If everyone thinking aloud at once, single idea fixation point sets in
Chi (2012)
neuroanatomy of fixedness
ppts given 9 min to solve the 9 dot problem (insight prblm)
the group with temporal lobe direct transcranial stimulation (tDCS) had biased neural activity and blood flow toward the right hemisphere, Also had a 40% solve rate
the control group had a 0% solve rate
shows that there is a eft brain dominance for rigid organization (fixedness)
the DCS limited the brain, allowing for restructuring and insight
Baird (2012)
practical way to break fixedness
ppts performed the AUT for 2 minutes and then did a second task for 12 min then resumed to the AUT
1. resting without activity
2. difficult working memory task
3. easy reaction time task
those who rested without activity and those with the difficult working memory task both had no improvement in new ideas.
the easy rxn time task had a 40% increase in new ideas, allowed for incubation of ideas, and productive mind wandering
paradoxical approach to problem solving
volitional daydreaming
what is volitional daydreaming?
intentionally disengaging from a task externally to promote incubation
-decoupling attention from perceptial input
aka philosophers walk
ex. going for walk, taking shower, etc.
