Chapter 11: Problem Solving

Question 1

what is a problem?

Answer 1

an obstacle between the initial state and the goal state, where the solution is not obvious

Question 2

what is a well defined problem?

Answer 2

-has a clear starting point (initial state)
-has a clear end point (goal state)
-it is easy to see and clear when the goal is reached

Question 3

what is an example of a well defined problem?

Answer 3

“How do I get to Einsteins?” You take a left, then a right, etc. and you will know because you can see the sign and smell the bagels.

Question 4

what is an ill defined problem?

Answer 4

-lacks one or both points (initial and/or goal state)

“how do I get to Einsteins?” as a football recruit who has never been to campus before and doesn’t have a map

Question 5

what is a wicked problem?

Answer 5

-no agreed starting point
-no agreed end point
(usually a social or cultural problem
-all possible solutions are neither simple or final
(usually large consequences for unsuccessful attempts)

Question 6

in order to solve a well defined problem it needs to be…

Answer 6

represented correctly

-we need to understand all possible actions and restrictions
-we need to understand the initial and the goal states

Question 7

what is an example of a well defined problem that is also represented well?

Answer 7

sudoku

Question 8

in order to solve well defined problems, we need to adequately use our _____________ & ____________ _____________.

Answer 8

attention
&
working memory

Question 9

what are the two types of problems?

Answer 9

1. analytical based problems
2. insight based problems

Question 10

what is an analytical based problem

Answer 10

a problem that incorporates a gradual systemic process that leads to representation
“I’m getting closer”

bucket problem

Question 11

what is an insight based problem?

Answer 11

sudden realization (insight) that leads to problem restructuring then representation
“aha moment”

chain problem

Question 12

what is an example of a problem that can be both analytical and insight based at the same time?

Answer 12

crossword puzzles

Question 13

Metcalfe (1987)

Answer 13

ppts solved an analytical algebra problem
-predicted difficulty 6/10
-higher confidence in solving
-gradual increase in warmth

ppts solved insight logic puzzles
-predicted difficulty 7.7/10
-perceived as more challenging
-sudden spike in warmth

Question 14

what is there a lack of early progress in insight problems?

Answer 14

fixation

Question 15

what is fixation?

Answer 15

tendency to focus on a specific problem characteristic which impedes the solution

usually is the result of strong association
ex. Dunckers candle problem-mounting the candle to the wall

Question 16

Duncker (1945)

Answer 16

functional fixedness

-we usually see objects as only having one main function

ie) the function of the tack box is to hold tacks BUT it can also hold a candle we just cant see that

Question 17

Adamson (1952)

Answer 17

Encouraging Insight

ppts given the candle problem
-given box with tacks inside (41% solved)
-given box with tacks on outside (86% solved)

Question 18

Maier (1931)

Answer 18

Encouraging insight

ppts given the two string problem
-37 of 60 did not solve the problem on their own (62%)
-23 of those remaining 37 did solve after the researcher “bumped into the string”

why? they had never had that experience before so they had no schema.

Question 19

what is a mental set?

Answer 19

like a toolbox of experience

made up of our assumptions and ideas about solving the problem based on our prior experience
“last time I did X, so I’ll try that again”

it helps only if the experience is applied correctly, but it hurts you if it is applied incorrectly

Question 20

analytical problem solving

Answer 20

ex. the tower of hanoi problem

getting from the initial state to the goal state takes “operators” or actions that take us to intermediate states

you make a move than then assess the state

Question 21

what is the number of possible intermediate states referred to as?

Answer 21

the problem space

Question 22

what are problem solving strategies that can be implemented when one is approaching the goal state without knowing the problem space

Answer 22

1. mean end analysis
2. working backward
3. using analogy

all examples use becoming a rockstar as the goal state

Question 23

mean end analysis

Answer 23

method of problem solving that makes subgoal states to use to work forward

ex.
1. master an instrument
2. book small venue
3. get an agent
etc.

Question 24

working backwards

Answer 24

method of problem solving that aims for states that occur just before a goal

ex. have an album

Question 25

using analogy

Answer 25

a method of problem solving that uses relevant information from one problem to solve another

Question 26

analogical transfer of a mental set

Answer 26

when you have a "source problem" or a problem you've solved before and a "target problem" or a new problem that benefits from a mental set (analogy)

Question 27

Gick (1980)

Answer 27

illustration of the analogical transfer of a mental set gave participants a target problem involving radiation treatment then were given analogous dispersion stories -just given the target problem (8% solved) -parade dispersion (49% solved) -attack dispersion (76% solved)

Question 28

what are the two types of analogical failure that can occur?

Answer 28

1. failure to notice and map 2. failure to apply

Question 29

analogical failure through failure to notice and map

Answer 29

-recognize a source problem exists -does not connect the problem elements ex. fortress=tumor, armies=ray

Question 30

analogical failure through failure to apply

Answer 30

-does not generate a parallel solution -does not understand the army can be split means the ray can be split

Question 31

what is creativity

Answer 31

the ability to develop original work, techniques, or thoughts

Question 32

what are the two types of creative thinking?

Answer 32

1. convergent thinking 2. divergent thinking

Question 33

what is convergent thinking?

Answer 33

using creativity to come up with ONE solution to a problem (usually as quickly as possible)

Question 34

what is divergent thinking?

Answer 34

using creativity to generate as many solutions as possible

Question 35

how do we measure convergent thinking

Answer 35

the associative chain test (ACT)

Question 36

what is the associative chain test

Answer 36

used to measure convergent thinking continuously generate alternating associated (A) and dissociated (D) words without repeating them measured through 1. response time 2. response commonness remoteness (pattern?) ex. starting word: phone 1. call A 2. banana D 3. fruit A 4. Car D 5. wheel A 6. Carpet D 7. vacuum

Question 37

how do we measure divergent thinking?

Answer 37

the alternate uses task (AUT)

Question 38

what is the alternate uses task (AUT)

Answer 38

a way to measure divergent thinking "how many uses for _______ can you think of?" -fluency - total # of uses -originality - distance from typical us -flexibility - breadth of all uses (different/distinct answers) -elaboration - detail of each use

Question 39

Basadur (2001)

Answer 39

thought of creativity as a process 1. generate the problem- understand the facts of the problem 2. problem formulation- generate ideas that fit the problem 3. problem solving- educate and choose the best ideas 4. solution implementation- take action

Question 40

high knowledge and creativity and problem solving

Answer 40

high knowledge allows you to understand the facts the the problem, generate conventional ideas from experience and analogy but it causes less divergent thinking

Question 41

low knowledge and creativity and problem solving

Answer 41

low knowledge does not allow you to understand the problem facts BUT it allows you to generate unconventional ideas

Question 42

smith (1993)

Answer 42

knowledge can limit creativity ppts drew imaginary creatures to inhabit a planet asked to label parts of the creature one group was shown 90 seconds of examples and those other shown nothing both groups drew ~3 examples but when given examples with antennae, tails, and legs, 24% of the creatures had those features, Only 11% of the no examples group had those features

Question 43

mullen (1991)

Answer 43

having examples is only effective when individuals work separately then pool all of their ideas together. If everyone thinking aloud at once, single idea fixation point sets in

Question 44

Chi (2012)

Answer 44

neuroanatomy of fixedness ppts given 9 min to solve the 9 dot problem (insight prblm) the group with temporal lobe direct transcranial stimulation (tDCS) had biased neural activity and blood flow toward the right hemisphere, Also had a 40% solve rate the control group had a 0% solve rate shows that there is a eft brain dominance for rigid organization (fixedness) the DCS limited the brain, allowing for restructuring and insight

Question 45

Baird (2012)

Answer 45

practical way to break fixedness ppts performed the AUT for 2 minutes and then did a second task for 12 min then resumed to the AUT 1. resting without activity 2. difficult working memory task 3. easy reaction time task those who rested without activity and those with the difficult working memory task both had no improvement in new ideas. the easy rxn time task had a 40% increase in new ideas, allowed for incubation of ideas, and productive mind wandering

Question 46

paradoxical approach to problem solving

Answer 46

volitional daydreaming

Question 47

what is volitional daydreaming?

Answer 47

intentionally disengaging from a task externally to promote incubation -decoupling attention from perceptial input aka philosophers walk ex. going for walk, taking shower, etc.