Chapter 11 and 12 Test Flashcards
attachment
refers to the close, emotional bond of affection that develop between infants and their caregivers
attachment and separation
-first few months: little attachment to anyone
-2-3 months old: smile and interact with mother, but little concern when handed around
-6-8 months old: begin to show preference for mother
separation anxiety
the mental distress seen in many infants when they are separated from the people with whom they have formed an attachment
imprinting
-natural bonding that appears to be innate and programmed genetically in certain animals
*Konrad Lorenz’s geese experiment
–must occur within first 32 hours of birth
–has consequences for short-term survival and long-term relationship building
Harry Harlow
In the 1950s, the general belief was that infants became attached to their mothers because she fed the infant
-mothers were reinforced from feeding
*Harlow’s monkey experiments called this into question
developmental stage
a period during which characteristics patterns of behavior are exhibited and certain capacities become established
stage theories assume:
- individuals must progress through specified stages in a particular order because each stage builds on the previous stage
- progress through these stages is strongly related to age
- there are major discontinuities between stages in typical behavior
Erik Erikson
3 stages = psychosocial
Eriksons psychosocial crisis
-personality is shaped by how individuals deal with these crises that involved transitions in important social relationships
-each crisis is a struggle between two opposing tendencies
–these antagonistic tendencies represent personality traits that people display in varying degrees over the remainder of their lives
*Erickson saw eight stages each with its own psychosocial crisis
John Bowlby
- psychoanalyst that believed that mental health and behavioral problems could be attributed to childhood
-his evolutionary theory of attachment suggests that children come into the world biologically preprogrammed to form attachments with others - attachment behaviors are instinctive and activated by any conditions that seem to threaten the achievement of proximity such as separation, insecurity, and fear
Mary Ainsworth
- showed that infant mother attachments vary in quality
– used the strange situation procedure - 3 categories of attachment:
1.secure
2. anxious ambivalent attachment
3. avoidant attachment
stranger situation
- children and mothers place in a room with a two way mirror and following situations were presented:
1. mother baby and experimenter
2. mother and baby alone
3. stranger joins baby and mother
4. mother leaves baby in stranger alone
5. mother returns in stranger leaves
6. mother leaves infant left completely alone
7. stranger returns
8. mother returns and stranger views
Jean Piaget
- began studying how children used their intelligence
-used his children as the basis of many of his theories
Piaget’s Stages of cognitive development
Sensorimotor stage - birth to two years
Preoperational stage - two to seven years
Concrete operational - stage 7 to 11 years
Formal operational stage - 12 and up
Sensorimotor Stage
The child begins to develop symbolic thought
Babies are stuck in the here and now world
–children begin to gain object permanence
Preoperational Stage
The child begins to develop ability to:
-represent objects with images and words
-language skills
-imagination
however, they lack conservation and exhibit egocentrism
centration
The tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting other important aspects
egocentrism
Thinking is characterized by a limited ability to share another person’s viewpoint
* a feature of egocentrism is animalism the belief that all things are living
Concrete Operational Stage
The child understands reversibility
children can:
-sort objects
-classify objects
-understand conservation
*Children in the concrete operational stage and understand that if you reverse the action (pour water back into the same size cups), then the water amount remains the same
Formal Operational Stage
During this time people developed the ability to think about abstract concepts and logically test hypothesis
Five important higher level cognitive abilities form
- Hypothetical deductive reasoning
- Abstract thought
- Separating reality from possibility
- Combination logic
- Reflective thinking (metacognition)
Lev Vygotsky
Russian psychologist whose work has only recently been studied in the West
the basics: lev vygotsky
-Children’s cognitive development highly influenced by the social situations with adults
- culture influences cognitive development
- language plays key role in development
Lawrence Kohlbergs Stages in Moral Development
0-9 years old - in the two preconventional stages, moral behavior is determined by the concepts of punishment, reward, and reciprocity
10-15 years old - in the two conventional stages, moral behavior is consistent with doing what others believe to be right, upholding laws, and maintaining social order
Over 15 - in the two postconventional stages, the individual is the ultimate judge of moral behavior, based on its own conscience and universal moral principles rather than social norms
parenting styles
Diana Baumrind - developmental psychologist at Berkeley
Authoritarian
Too hard - less warmth and nurturing, high expectations, mistakes punished harshly, yelling and corporate punishment
Permissive
Too soft - usually very loving and nurturing, little or no attempt to discipline children, few rules and not much structure, typically act like a friend rather than adult
Authoritative
Just right - express warmth and nurturance, encourage independence, administer fair and consistent discipline, children tend to be happy
Uninvolved
Little guidance/attention - unaware of child’s life, expects child to raise themselves, don’t understand child development/parenting
James Marica adolescent identity development
the square box
box: low crisis/exploration and low commitment
Diffusion :(
box: high crisis/exploration and low commitment
moratorium :)
box: low crisis/exploration and high commitment
foreclosure :I
box: high crisis/exploration and high commitment
achievement :D
more Bowlby:
Separation to attachment figures have long term consequences on behavior
-delinquency, reduced intelligence, increased aggression
-affectionless psychopathy is an inability to show affection or concern for others
44 thieves’ study
-Studied 44 juvenile delinquents
-most had extended absence from attachment figure before age 5
Disorganized-disoriented attachment
Children show confusion as to whether or not they should approach their attachment figure
- these children are very insecure
Cognitive development
The transition in youngsters’ patterns of thinking including reasoning, remembering, and problem solving
Infancy (0-1)
Trust versus mistrust
-if the infant is well cared for she will develop faith in the future -if she experiences too much uncertainty about being taken care of she will come to look at the world with fear and suspicion
HOPE
Early Childhood (2-3)
Autonomy versus doubt
- here the child learns self-control and self assertion
- but if he receives too much criticism he will be ashamed of himself and have doubts about his independence
WILL
Play Age (3-6)
Initiative versus guilt
- when the child begins to make her own decisions
- constant discouragement or punishment could lead to guilt and a loss of initiative
PURPOSE
School Age (6-12)
Industry versus inferiority
- the child’s masters skills and takes pride in his competence
- too much criticism of his work at this stage can lead to long-term feelings of inferiority
COMPETENCE
Adolescence (12-19)
Identity versus role confusion
- the teenager tries to develop her own separate identity while still fitting in with her friends
- failure leads to confusion over who she is
FIDELITY
Early Adulthood (20-40)
Intimacy versus isolation
- a person secure in his own identity can proceed to an intimate partnership in which he makes compromises for another
- the isolated person may have many affairs or even a long term relationship but always avoids true closeness/intimacy
LOVE
Middle Adulthood (40-64)
Generativity versus stagnation
- a person who becomes stagnated is absorbed in herself and tries to hang on to the past (think midlife crisis)
- generativity involves a productive life that will serve as an example of the next generation
CARE
Late Adulthood (65-death)
Integrity versus despair
- a person who has lived a productive fulfilling life is comfortable in their age
- while despair sets in for the for those who have struggled with regrets about the choices they made during their life
WISDOM
personality
Unique or distinct traits or characteristics of yourself that are consistent
personality trait
A durable disposition to behave in a particular way in a variety of situations
the five factor model
-McCrae and Acosta
O-openness to experience
C-conscientiousness
E-extraversion
A-agreeableness
N-neuroticism
Neuroticism
Long term tendency to be in a negative emotional state
* anxious, insecure, hostile, vulnerable, self-conscious, neurotic
– people with neuroticism tend to have more depressed moods, they suffer from feelings of guilt, envy, anger and anxiety, more frequent than others
Extraversion
Indicates how outgoing and social a person is
* outgoing, upbeat, gregarious, assertive, friendly, sociable
– life of the party, enjoying being with people
Openness to experience
People tend to be tolerant of ambiguity and have less need for closure
* curiosity, flexibility, imaginative
Agreeableness
A personality trait manifesting itself in individual behavioral characteristics that are perceived as kind, sympathetic, cooperative
* sympathetic, modest, trusting, cooperative
– people who score low could be suspicious, aggressive
Conscientious
Being thorough, careful, vigilant
* to do a task well
* people are organized
– diligent, dependable, disciplined
Psychodynamic perspective
Theories include all the diverse theories, descended from the work of Sigmund Freud, that focus on unconscious mental forces
* the work of Jung and Adler
Freud’s structure of personality
ID, ego, superego
ID
The primitive, instinctive, component of personality that operates according to the pleasure principle
*pleasure principle - the instinctual seeking of pleasure and avoiding of pain in order to satisfy needs
Ego
The decision making component of personality that operates according to the reality principle
* reality principle - the egos control of the pleasure seeking activity
Superego
The ethical component of the personality and provides the moral standards by which the ego operates
Freud’s level of awareness
Conscious, preconscious, unconscious
Preconscious
Contains material of just beneath the surface of awareness that can easily be retrieved
Conscious
Whatever one is aware of at a particular point in time
Unconscious
Thoughts, memories, and desires that are well below the surface of conscious awareness but that nonetheless exert great influence on behavior
Conflict and the tyranny sexual // aggressive urges
- Freud believed people’s lives are dominated by conflict
- ID wants immediate gratification
- ego stops it from happening if against
- super ego makes you consider the largest societal consequences
Freud’s defense mechanisms
Rationalization
repression
projection
displacement
reaction formation
regression
identification
sublimation
denial
Defense mechanisms
Largely unconscious reactions that protect a person from unpleasant emotions such as anxiety and guilt
Rationalization
Creating false but plausible excuses to justify unacceptable behavior
Repression
Keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious
Projection
Attributing one’s own thoughts, feelings, or motives to another
* putting it on the other person in the conflict
Displacement
Diverting emotional feelings from their original source to his substitute target
* putting it on someone not even in the conflict
Reaction formation
Behaving in a way thats exactly the opposite of one’s true feelings
Regression
A reversion to immature patterns of behavior
Identification
Bolstering self-esteem by forming an imaginary or real alliance with some person or group
Sublimation
Occurs when unconscious, unacceptable impulses are channeled into socially acceptable, perhaps even admirable, behaviors
Denial
The action of declaring something to be untrue
Freud’s developmental theory psychosexual stages
-developmental periods with a characteristic sexual focus that leave their mark on adult personality
– fixation: a failure to move forward from one stage to another as expected
oral stage (0-1)
Weaning (obsessive eating, smoking, nail biting/chewing)
anal stage (2-3)
Toilet training (control issues and retentive)
phallic stage (4-5)
Identifying with adult role models (potential gender identity issues)
latency stage (6-12)
Sexuality is suppressed, more social expansion beyond family
genital stage (puberty-onwards)
Sexual urges reappear channeled toward peers
Carl Jungs: analytical psychology
Personal unconscious and collective unconscious
Personal unconscious
Contains material that is not with ones conscious awareness because it has been repressed or forgotten
Collective unconscious
A storehouse of latent memory traces inherited from people’s ancestral past
- archetypes: emotionally charged images and thought forms that have universal meaning
Alfred Adler
Striving for superiority, compensation, birth order theory
Striving for superiority
A universal drive to adapt, improve oneself, and master life changes
Compensation
Involves efforts to overcome imagined or real inferiorities by developing one’s abilities
Birth order theory
Depending where you fell in the birth order, you would potentially have the same characteristics as other people in the same order as you
Evaluating psychodynamic perspectives:
- poor testability
- unrepresentative samples
- inadequate evidence
- sexism
Behavioral perspectives
BF Skinner, and the behavioralists, argue that scientific psychology should study only observable behavior
Determinism
Behavior is fully determined by environmental stimuli
–no free will
* Skinner viewed individual personality as a collection of response tendencies
Social cognitive theory
Albert Bandura (behaviorist)
- conscious, thinking, feeling beings
Reciprocal determinism
Internal mental events, external environmental events, and overt behavior all influence one another behavior can shape the environment
Observational learning
Occurs when an organism’s responding is influenced by observation of others, who are called models
Self efficacy
Refers to ones belief about ones ability to perform behaviors that should lead to expected outcomes, self efficacy is subjective
Person situation controversy:
Walter Mischel:
- people make responses that they think will lead to reinforcement in the situation at hand
** small chunks of behavior tend to be more variable while larger chunks show more consistency
Evaluating behavioral perspectives:
Dehumanizing nature of more radical behaviorists
– dilution of the behavioral approach
– social cognitive theory undermines foundations of behaviorism
Humanism
The theoretical orientation that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans, especially their freedom and their potential for personal growth, this perspective was very much a reaction to behaviorism
Person centered theory:
Carl Rogers:
* self concept: a collection of beliefs about one’s own nature, unique qualities, and typical behavior
* subjective
Person centered theory - development of the self:
- Rogers thought childhood experiences were important to promote congruence or incongruence between developing social cognitive and actual experience
- people have a strong need for love, affection and acceptance
- anxiety and defense
– experiences that threaten people’s personal views of themselves are the principal cause of anxiety
Maslow’s theory of self actualization:
Abraham Maslow:
- hierarchy of needs: a systematic arrangement of needs, according to priority, and which basic needs must be met before less basic needs are pursued. We have an innate derive towards personal growth.
– need for self- actualization: the need to fulfill one’s potential
Evaluating humanistic perspectives:
- poor testability
- unrealistic view of human nature
- inadequate evidence
Biological perspectives:
Han Eysenck:
- personality is derived to a large extent by a person’s genes
– only three higher order traits: extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism
* psychoticism - being egocentric, impulsive, cold and antisocial
Behavioral genetics and personality:
- research begins to support the idea that many personality traits are largely inherited
–twin studies
Evolutionary perspective
Natural selection has favored certain traits over the course of human history
–The Big Five
Contemporary approaches:
Narcissism, terror management theory, individualism, collectivism
Narcissism
A personality trait marketed by an inflated sense of importance, and need for attention and admiration, a sense of entitlement, and tendency to exploit others
Terror management theory
Why do people need self esteem?
- morality salience: the degree to which subjects mortality is prominent in their minds
Individualism
Involves putting personal goals ahead of group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group membership
Collectivism
Involves putting group goals ahead of personal goals and defining one’s identity in terms of the group’s one belongs to
