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Physiology > Chapter 11 > Flashcards

Chapter 11 Flashcards

1
Q

What do endocrine glands do?

A

secrete hormones into the bloodstream
- ductless

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2
Q

Where do hormones go?

A

target cells that contain receptor proteins

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3
Q

What are neurohormones?

A

hormones secreted into the blood by specialized neurons

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4
Q

What do hormones affect?

A

metabolism of targets

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5
Q

What are amino hormones derived from? Give examples.

A

derived from tyrosine or tryptophan
- Norepinephrine
- Epinephrine
- Thyroxine
- Melatonin

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6
Q

What are polypeptide/protein hormones? Give examples.

A

chains of amino acids
- anti-diuretic hormone
- growth hormone
- insulin
- oxytocin
- glucagon
- ACTH
- PTH

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7
Q

What are examples of glycoproteins?

A

LH, FSH, TSH

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8
Q

What are steroids? Give examples.

A

lipids derived from cholesterol
- testosterone
- estrogen
- progesterone
- cortisol

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9
Q

What are steroid and thyroid hormones?

A

lipids

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10
Q

What are the 2 major thyroid hormones?

A

Thyroxine (T4)
Triiodothyronine (T3)

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11
Q

What are examples of long range reflexes?

A

1) hormone-secreting gland cell -> hormone -> blood vessel -> target cell
2) nerve cell -> nerve impulse -> neurotransmitter
-> neuron or effector cell
3) nerve cell -> nerve impulse -> neuro hormone into blood vessel -> target cell

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12
Q

What are examples of short range local control?

A

1) Local cell -> paracrine agent -> target cell
2) local cell -> autocrine agent -> local cell

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13
Q

What is the main difference between neurotransmitters and hormones?

A

hormones transport in blood and have more diversity of effects in hormone targets

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14
Q

Can chemicals be both hormones and neurotransmitters?

A

yes

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15
Q

What does it mean for hormones to be synergistic?

A

they work together to produce an effect

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16
Q

Why are synergistic hormones beneficial?

A

produces a larger effect together than individual effects added together

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17
Q

What does it mean for a hormone to have permissive effect?

A

enhances responsiveness of a target organ to second hormone

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18
Q

What does it mean for a hormone to have antagonistic effect?

A

action of 1 hormone inhibits effect of another

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19
Q

How do target cell receptors pick a hormone?

A
  • specificity
  • high affinity
  • low capacity
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20
Q

Where are the receptors for lipophilic hormones?

A

in the target’s cytoplasm and/or nucleus (affect tarnscription)
- can diffuse through plasma membrane

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21
Q

What is genomic action? How long does it take?

A

takes at least 30 minutes
- when lipophilic hormones target the nucleus and affects transcription

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22
Q

What is nongenomic action?

A

receptors for water-soluble are on surface of target cell
- act through 2nd messengers

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23
Q

What are nuclear hormone receptors?

A

receptors that bind to lipid hormones attached to carrier proteins and dissociate from carriers to pass through plasma membrane of targets

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24
Q

What is the function of nuclear hormone receptors?

A

transcription factors when bound to hormone ligands
- activates transcription factors
- constitutes a superfamily composed of steroid family and thyroid hormone family

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25
Q

What domains do nuclear hormone receptors have?

A

ligand (hormone) binding: binds hormone and translocate to nucleus
DNA-binding: binds to hormone-response element (HRE) on DNA located adjacent to target gene

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26
Q

What is the HRE made of?

A

2 half-sites
- 2 ligand bound receptors can bind to each HRE (dimerization) to stimulate transcription of target gene

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27
Q

What does the thyroid secrete?

A

90% T4 (thyroxine) and 10% T3

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28
Q

What can T4 change to?

A
  • bind to carrier protein to become thyroid binding globulin (TBG)
  • converts to T3 inside cell that can bind to receptor protein in nucleus
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29
Q

How is HRE activated?

A
  • T3 and receptor bind to 1 half site
  • retinoic acid binds other half-site
  • both work together to activate HRE
  • stimulates transcription of target gene
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30
Q

What hormones use 2nd messengers? Why?

A

water soluble hormones use cell surface receptors
- can’t pass through plasma membrane
- actions mediated by 2nd messengers
- hormone = extracellular signal

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31
Q

What do 2nd messengers do?

A

carries signal from receptor to inside of cell

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32
Q

What does cAMP do?

A

mediates effects of many polypeptide and glycoprotein hormones

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33
Q

How is cAMP made?

A

1) hormone binds to receptor causing dissociation of a g-protein subunit
2) g-protein subunit binds to and activates adenylate cyclase
3) adenylate cyclase converts ATP into cAMP

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34
Q

Where does cAMP attach?

A

inhibitory subunit of protein kinase

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35
Q

How is cAMP inactivated?

A

by phosphodiesterase

36
Q

How is cAMP used?

A

inhibitory subunit dissociates to activate protein kinase
- phosphorylates enzymes that produce hormone’s effects

37
Q

What is the function for phospholipase-C-Ca++?

A

2nd messenger system for some hormones

38
Q

How is phospholipase C activated?

A

hormone binds to surface receptor
- activates G-protein
- activates phospholipase C

39
Q

How does phospholipase C work?

A

splits membrane phospholipid into 2nd messengers IP3 and DAG

40
Q

What does IP3 do and what does it lead to?

A

IP3 diffuses through cytoplasm to ER
- causes Ca++ channels to open

41
Q

What happens after Ca++ diffuses into the cytoplasm?

A

binds to and activates calmodulin

42
Q

What does Ca++-calmodulin do?

A

activates protein kinases to phosphorylate enzymes that produce hormone’s effects

43
Q

Where does epinephrine activation occur?

A

liver cell

44
Q

What is tyrosine kinase used for?

A

insulin and many growth factors to cause cellular effects

45
Q

What is tyrosine kinase made of?

A

2 units that form active dimer when insulin binds

46
Q

What can an activated tyrosine kinase do?

A

phosphorylates signaling molecules that induce hormone/growth factor effects

47
Q

What does insulin stimulate?

A

glucose uptake by GLUT4 carrier proteins

48
Q

How does GLUT4 carrier protein work?

A

2nd messengers cause vesicles containing GLUT4 transporters to be inserted into plasma membranes

49
Q

How is the pituitary gland split?

A

anterior and posterior lobes

50
Q

Where is the pituitary gland?

A

hangs below hypothalamus by infundibulum

51
Q

What is the anterior pituitary gland controlled by?

A

hypothalamus

52
Q

What does the posterior pituitary gland do?

A

stores and releases hormones made in hypothalamus
- Anti-diuretic hormone (vasopressin)
- oxytocin

53
Q

What is antidiuretic hormone?

A

promotes H2O conservation by kidneys

54
Q

What does oxytocin do?

A

stimulates contractions of uterus during parturition and contractions of mammary gland alveoli for milk-ejection reflex

55
Q

What produces ADH?

A

supraoptic nuclei of hypothalamus

56
Q

What produces oxytocin?

A

paraventricular nuclei

57
Q

How is ADH and oxytocin sent to the posterior pituitary gland?

A

through the hypothalamohypophyseal tract

58
Q

What is the release of ADH and oxytocin controlled by?

A

neuroendocrine reflexes

59
Q

What does the anterior pituitary gland do?

A

secretes 6 trophic hormones that main size of targets
- high blood levels cause target to hypertrophy
- low blood levels cause atrophy

60
Q

What are the 6 hormones released by the anterior pituitary? What are their functions?

A

1) growth hormone (GH): promotes growth, protein synthesis, and movement of amino acids into cells
2) thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH): stimulates thyroid to produce and secrete T4 and T3
3) adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete cortisol and aldosterone
4) follicle stimulating hormone (FSH): stimulates growth of ovarian follicles and sperm production
5) luteinizing hormone (LH): causes ovulation and secretion of testosterone in testes
6) Prolactin (PRL): stimulates milk production by mammary glands

61
Q

What is the release of the anterior pituitary hormones controlled by?

A

hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting factors
- feedback from levels of target gland hormones

62
Q

What is the path of movement for releasing and inhibiting hormones of the anterior pituitary?

A
  • axon endings into capillary bed in median eminence
  • carried by hypothalamohypophyseal portal system to another capillary bed
  • diffuses into anterior pituitary and regulate secretion of its hormones
63
Q

What is the feedback control of anterior pituitary?

A
  • short feedback loop so retrograde flow of blood and hormones from anterior pituitary to hypothalamus inhibits secretion of releasing hormone
  • negative feedback of target gland hormones
64
Q

What hormone works during mentrual cycle?

A

estrogen stimulates LH surge by positive feedback

65
Q

Where does the hypothalamus receive input from?

A

higher brain centers that can affect anterior pituitary secretion

66
Q

Where are the adrenal glands?

A

on top of the kidneys

67
Q

What are the components of the adrenal glands?

A

outer cortex and inner medulla

68
Q

What does the adrenal medulla make? What is it controlled by?

A

makes and secretes 80% epinephrine and 20% norepinephrine
- controlled by sympathetic nervous system

69
Q

Which hormonal effects last longer?

A

epinephrine

70
Q

What is the adrenal medulla innervated by? When is it activated?

A

innervated by preganglionic sympathetic fibers
- activated during fight or flight response

71
Q

What does the adrenal medulla cause?

A
  • increased respiratory rate
  • increased HR and cardiac output
  • general vasoconstriction to increase venous return
  • glycogenolysis and lipolysis
72
Q

What is secreted by the zona glomerulosa?

A

mineralocorticoids

73
Q

What is secreted by the zona fasciculata?

A

glucocorticoids

74
Q

What is secreted by the zone reticularis?

A

sex steroids

75
Q

What is controlled by ACTH?

A

adrenal cortex

76
Q

What does the adrenal cortex secrete? What does each do?

A
  • cortisol: inhibits glucose utilization and stimulates gluconeogenesis
  • aldosterone: stimulates kidneys to reabsorb Na+ and secrete K+
  • sex steroids for supplement
77
Q

Where is the thyroid gland?

A

below the larynx

78
Q

What does the thyroid gland secrete?

A

T4 and T3

79
Q

What does the thyroid gland consist of?

A

thyroid follicles
- outer layer: follicle cells that synthesize T4
- interior: colloid (protein-rich fluid)

80
Q

What is the role of iodide (I-) in the blood?

A

transported into follicles and secreted into colloid
- then oxidized to iodine (I2) and attached to tyrosine of thyroglobulin

81
Q

What is thyroglobulin?

A

large storage molecule for T4 and T3

82
Q

What does TSH stimulate?

A

hydrolysis of T4 and T4 from thyroglobulin and then secretion

83
Q

How does goiter occur?

A

absence of sufficient dietary iodide = T4 and T3 can’t be made and levels are low
- low T4 and T3 don’t provide negative feedback and TSH levels go out
- causes thyroid gland to grow (goiter)

84
Q

What does parathyroid hormone act on? What effect does that have? What is release of the hormone stimulated by?

A

acts on bones, kidney, intestines to increase blood Ca++ levels
- release stimulated by decreased blood Ca++

85
Q

What are the islets of langerhans? What does it contain?

A

scattered clusters of endocrine cells in pancreas
- alpha and beta cells

86
Q

What do the alpha cells secrete? Why?

A

glucagon in response to low blood glucose
- stimulates glycogenolysis and lipolysis
- increases blood glucose

87
Q

What do the beta cells secrete? Why?

A

insulin in response to high blood glucose
- promotes entry of glucose into cells
- conversion of glucose into glycogen and fat
- decreases blood glucose

Physiology (18 decks)

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