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Chapter 1 Flashcards

1
Q

the region where electrons reside is the

A

extranuclear space

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2
Q

shells define the probability of … in various regions of space relative to the …

A

finding an electron; nucleus

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3
Q

the energy of electrons in the shells is …, which means that only specific values of energy are possible,r ather than a continuum of values

A

quantized

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4
Q

delocalization: the spreading of electron density over a larger …

A

volume of space

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5
Q

each shell can contain up to … electrons

A

2n^2 (n is number of shell)

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6
Q

electrons in the first shell are nearest to the positively charged nucleus and are held most strongly by it; these electrons are

A

lowest in energy

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7
Q

orbital: region of space that can hold … electrons and has a specific quantized energy

A

two

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8
Q

orthogonal: having no net

A

overlap

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9
Q

the electron configuration of an atom is a description of the … its electrons occupy

A

orbitals

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10
Q

according to the pauli exclusion principle, for two electrons in the same orbital, their spins must be …

A

paired

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11
Q

electrons have a quantum mechanical property referred to as spin. they have magnetic north and south poles. two electrons with opposite spins are said to have

A

paired spins

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12
Q

orbitals of equal energy are called

A

degenerate

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13
Q

the reason hund’s rule stands (electrons fill orbitals individually before doubly) is because of

A

electron-electron repulsion

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14
Q

hund’s rule also states that the spins of the single electrons in the degenerate orbitals should be

A

aligned

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15
Q

unstable structures possess energy waiting to be released. when a structure is higher in energy, the more energy it has

A

stored

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16
Q

all of nature seeks its … energy state; when electrons are rearranged back to their ground state, energy is …

A

lowest; released

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17
Q

the energy it takes to remove an electron from an atom or a molecule is called the …

A

ionization potential

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18
Q

ionization potential … across a period and … a group

A

across; up

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19
Q

an atom that gains electrons becomes an … and an atom that loses electrons becomes a ..

A

anion; cation

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20
Q

when atoms are held together primarily by …, we say that an ionic interaction exists between them

A

attraction of oppositely charged ions

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21
Q

Electronegativity increases as … increases, and does so … a period and … a group

A

Zeff; across; up

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22
Q

the energy released upon addition of an electron is called the …, which becomes more favorable as you move from … to … in a row of the periodic table

A

electron affinity; left; right

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23
Q

because the electronegativity of an atom reflects its tendency to hold on to and to acquire electrons, the phenomenon arises from a combination of … and …

A

ionization potentials; electron affinities

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24
Q

the attraction between ions is what permits ionic salts to form a strong … and gives them a high ..

A

crystal lattice; melting point

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25
Q

according to the lewis model, a pair of electrons in a covalent bond functions in two ways simultaneously: it is shared by two atoms and at the same time fills the … of each

A

outer shell

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26
Q

bond dissociation enthalpy is the energy that would have to be absorbed to

A

break a bond

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27
Q

when bonds are formed by the sharing of two electrons between adjacent atoms, the system becomes more stable because the … of the electrons is stablilized relative to two separate atoms. the wave that represents the electrons in a bond is partially concentrated in the space …, leading to … between them. in contrast, they are attracted to each … and shield the … between the two nuclei

A

wave character; between the nuclei; repulsion; nucleus; repulsion

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28
Q

the lowering of the energy of the wave character of the electrons along with their added attraction to each nucleus is balanced with the … between the … and the …. This balance results in an optimum … called the …

A

repulsion; nuclei; electrons; internuclear distance; bond length

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29
Q

the distance between nuclei participating in a chemical bond is called the

A

bond length

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30
Q

a good way to distinguish covalent bonds from ionic attraction is the fact that covalent bonds have defined … and … resulting from the … of electrons

A

geometries; connectivities; sharing

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31
Q

the polarity in the bond increases with increasing … between the bonded atoms

A

difference in electronegativity

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32
Q

nonpolar covalent is less than ..
polar covalent is less than/equal to … and greater than/equal to …
ionic is greater than …

A

0.5; 1.9; 0.5; 1.9

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33
Q

electronegativity varies somewhat depending on the …. and … state of an atom

A

environment; oxidation

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34
Q

in particular, carbon in compounds is not atomic carbon, and it often behaves as if its electronegativity is … than that shown

A

greater

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35
Q

the polarity of a covalent bond is measured by a vector quantity called a …, defined as the product of the …, e, on one of its atoms times the …, d, separating the two atoms

A

bond dipole; charge; distance

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36
Q

the charge on an atom in a molecule/polyatomic ion is called its

A

formal charge

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37
Q

formal charge = number of … - (all … electrons + 1/2 all … electrons)

A

valence e-; unshared; shared

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38
Q

when an atom possessing an octet of electrons has one bond more than its neutral state, the atom is … charged; when it has one bond less than its neutral form, it is … charged

A

positively; negatively

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39
Q

for group 3A elements, their valence shells are only … filled. trivalent compounds of boron and aluminum exhibit a high … with compounds that have extra …, enabling them to fill their octets
these elements don’t have 8 electrons after bonding

A

partially; reactivity; electrons

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40
Q

dative/coordinate covalent bonds: where the two electrons come from only a … or … while the other involved in that bond does not contribute any electrons

A

single group; atom

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41
Q

functional groups allow us to divide organic compounds into classes, and exhibit characteristic …

A

chemical reactions

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42
Q

unshared pairs of electrons are generally …. in a condensed structural formula

A

not shown

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43
Q

alcohols are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary depending on the number of … bonded to the …

A

carbon atoms; carbon bearing the OH group

44
Q

in a primary amine, nitrogen is bonded to …, in a secondary amine, it’s bonded to …, in a tertiary its bonded to …

A

one carbon; two carbons; three carbons

45
Q

aldehydes and ketones both have .., but aldehydes contain …, where ketones contain the … group bonded to …

A

carbonyl; CHO group; carbonyl; two carbons

46
Q

in a condensed structural formula, carboxyl can be written as … or …

A

COOH; CO2H

47
Q

a carboxylic ester, is a derivative of a carboxylic acid in which the hydrogen of the carboxyl group is replaced by a ..

A

carbon-containing group

48
Q

a carboxylic amide is a derivative of a carboxylic acid in which the … is replaced by an …

A

OH; amine

49
Q

VSEPr stands for

A

valence-shell electron-pair repulsion

50
Q

tetrahedral: a bonding arrangement in which an atom is bonded to … atoms located at the corners of a …

A

four; tetrahedron

51
Q

pyramidal: a bonding arrangement in which an atom is bonded to three atoms in a

A

triangular pyramid

52
Q

discrepancies between predicted and observed angles can be explained by propsoing that unshared electron pairs repel … pairs more strongly than do bonding pairs

A

adjacent

53
Q

to predict whether a molecule is polar, we need to determine whether it has … and what the … of its atoms is in space

A

polar bonds; arrangement

54
Q

the molecular dipole moment of a molecule is the vector sum of its individual

A

bond dipoles

55
Q

neither lewis model or vsepr gives any means of accounting in a quantitative way for the reasons atoms combine in the first place to form … with the …

A

covalent bonds; liberation of energy

56
Q

each wave function psi is associated with a unique set of quantum numbers and with a particular atomic or molecular … A wave function occupies 3d space and is called an …, which can contain no more than two electrons

A

orbital; orbital

57
Q

psi squared is proportional to the probability of finding an electron at a

A

given point in space

58
Q

the value of psi squared at any point in space is proportional to the … at that point

A

electron density

59
Q

although the value of psi at any point can be positive/negative, the value of psi squared will always be positive in an orbital. In other words, the electron density in two regions of an orbital will be equal if those regions have the same absolute value of …

A

psi

60
Q

when we describe orbital interactions, we are referring to interactions of …, which interact … or …

A

waves; constructively; destructively

61
Q

phasing: the sign of the … at particular coordinates in space, either plus or minus

A

wave function

62
Q

the greater electron density is on the more …, especially those with …

A

electronegative atoms; lone pairs

63
Q

the valence bond approach to approximating the energetics of covalent bond formation provides the most easily visualized description of …, while the molecular orbital method is most convenient for describing ..

A

.single bonds; multiple bonds

64
Q

molecular orbital theory begins with the hypothesis that electrons in atoms exist in atomic orbitals and assumes that electrons in molecules exist in …

A

molecular orbitals

65
Q

the number of molecular orbitals formed is equal to the number of

A

atomic orbitals combined

66
Q

just like atomic orbitals, molecular orbitals are arranged in order of

A

increasing energy

67
Q

when electrons occupy a sigma bonding molecular orbital, electron density is concentrated in the region between the two … and serves to offset the repulsive interaction between them

A

positively charged nuclei

68
Q

a bonding molecular orbital is an orbital in which electrons have a … energy than they would in the isolated atomic orbitals

A

lower

69
Q

sigma bonding molecular orbitals are … about the axis

A

cylindrically symmetric

70
Q

out-of-phase addition: … of the wave functions of two orbitals

A

subtraction

71
Q

antibonding molecular orbital: an orbital in which the electrons in it have a … energy (are more easily …) than they would have in the isolated atomic orbitals. Population of this orbital with electrons actually causes … involved

A

higher; removed; repulsion of the nuclei

72
Q

a key feature of MO theory is that molecular orbitals extend over … because all of the orbitals of all the atoms take part in constructing molecular orbitals. A second key feature is that the molecular orbitals are created by the … and … addition of all the atomic orbitals that are aligned to overlap on all atoms in a molecule

A

entire molecules; in phase; out of phase

73
Q

a basic principle of valence bond theory is that bonds are created by the … of atomic orbitals on .. therefore, with vb theory, the bonds are … between adjacent atoms rather than …. over several atoms as in MO theory

A

overlap; adjacent atoms; localized; delocalized

74
Q

to account for the observed bond angles in a way that is intuitive for hemists, linus pauling proposed that atomic orbitals for each atom should be thought of as … to form new atomic orbitals, called …, which then interact to form bonds by overlapping with orbitals from other atoms

A

combining; hybrid orbitals

75
Q

hybrid orbitals are formed by combinations of atomic orbitals, a process called … mathematically, this is accomplished by combining the wave functions of the … and three … orbital wave functions. the number of hybrid orbitals formed is equal to the number of …

A

hybridization; 2s; 2p; atomic orbitals combined

76
Q

sp3 hybridization results in bond angles of approximately … each sp3 orbital has …% s character and …% p character

A

109.5 degrees; 25; 75

77
Q

superscripts in the designation of hybrid orbitals tell you how many … have been combined to form the hybrid orbitals

A

atomic orbitals

78
Q

the angle between sp2 hybrid orbitals is …

A

120 degrees

79
Q

sp hybrid orbitals lie at an angle of …

A

180 degrees

80
Q

sp has …% s character and …% p character

A

50; 50

81
Q

S and P, which tend to have more bonds than allowed by the octet rule are considered to be … hybridized with ..

A

sp3; formal charges

82
Q

combining MO and VB:
valence bond theory gives the experimentally determined geometries through … and viewing bonding as arising from electrons localized between adjacent atoms. MO contributes through the … and … addition of the orbitals

A

hybridization; in; out of phase

83
Q

one resulting molecular orbital is lower in energy than the two separate atomic orbitals and is called the … orbital. The other resulting molecular orbital is higher in energy than the two atomic orbitals and is … Only the …. orbital is populated

A

bonding sigma; antibonding; lower energy

84
Q

wherever there is a double bond, …. hybridization should be considered for the atoms involved

A

sp2

85
Q

the combination of parallel 2p atomic orbitals by in phase and out of phase addition of their wave functions gives a … and … molecular orbital

A

pi bonding; pi antibonding

86
Q

When C, N, and O have an octet of electrons and are involved in making only single bonds to other atoms, these atoms are … hybridized

A

sp3

87
Q

when c, n, and o, have an octet of electrons and are involved in double bonds, these atoms are … hybridized unless the atom makes two double bonds; in which case they are .. .hybridized

A

sp2; sp

88
Q

finally, when c, n, and o have an octet of electrons and are involved in triple bonds, they are … hybridized

A

sp

89
Q

atombs bonded to only one other atom (called a terminal atom) are not assigned a …

A

geometry

90
Q

atoms with sp3 hybridization adopt …., …, or … geometries depending on whether they are bonding to …,…, or … other atoms respectively

A

four; three; bent

91
Q

atoms with sp2 hybridization adopt … or … geometries depending on whether they are bonded to three or two other atoms, respectively. atoms with sp hybridization adopt only … geometries

A

trigonal planar; bent; linear

92
Q

individual lewis structures are called … or …

A

contributing structures; resonance structures

93
Q

the real molecule or ion is a … of the various contributing structures

A

resonance hybrid

94
Q

a curved arrow is nothing more than a bookkeeping symbol used to keep track of electron pairs, or as some call it, …

A

electron pushing

95
Q

when you draw curved arrows to indicate the creation of a new contributing structure, the arrows always start on either a … (or …) or a …, and should end at an atom that can … or should create a … on an atom

A

double; triple bond; lone pair of electrons; accept a bond; lone pair of electrons

96
Q 
acceptable contributing structures: 
must have the same number of ... 
must obey the rules of covalent bonding
positions of all nuclei must be the ... 
must have the same number of ... and ... electrons
A

valence electrons; same; paired; unpaired

97
Q

characteristics of more contributing structures:
structures in which all atoms have ….
maximum number of … (less unpaired …)
fewer …
negative charge is on a more … and positive charge is on a less …

A

completed octets; covalent bonds; electrons; formal charges; electronegative atom; electronegative atom

98
Q

if resonance structures contribute unequally, the actual structure of the hybrid most resembles the structure that

A

contributes most

99
Q

delocalization is always a … effect

A

stabilizing

100
Q

conjugation: lack of atoms between … or btween … and … electrons

A

pi bonds; pi bonds; lone pair

101
Q

to picture the orbitals involved in delocalized systems, we use only

A

mo theory

102
Q

because we consider delocalization only for molecules containing pi bonds adjacent to pi bonds and/or pi bonds adjacent to lone pairs, we only use … for such systems

A

MO theory

103
Q

for an atom to be involved in pi bonding, it must have a … orbital

A

2p

104
Q

triple bonds are … and … than double bonds

A

shorter; stronger

105
Q

relative lengths of C H bonds are determined by the percent … in the hybrid orbital of carbon forming the sigma bond with hydrogen. the greater the percent, the .. electrons in it are held to the nucleus and the … the bond

A

s character; closer; shorter

106
Q

there is correlation between bond length and strength: the shorter the bond, the … it is

A

stronger

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