chapter 1,2,3 Flashcards
order of things
induction vs deduction
biosphere, ecosystem, community, population, individual, organ system and function, tissue, cells, organelles, molecule
induction- generalization ( emerging properties)
deduction- looking closely specifically at one thing
scientific method
hypothesis- testable statement or tentative explanation for observation, if a hypothesis is repeatedly confirmed ( it can never be proven only disproven) it can be considered a theory which is still falsifiable
experiments
controlled experiment, different variables each varying in one way to observe the factor that effecting/ changing the experiment
control, the variable that is left unchanged, each variable that is being changed in one way is being compared back to the control
dependant variable- is observed ( one tested)
indépendant variable- One experimenter controls
proper hypothesis- If ( dependant variable) is related to (dependant variable) then… prediction
water
dissociation of water
polar molecule ( neutral overall but regions with charge) O is slightly negative , H slightly positive resulting in hydrogen bonds. which is where a slightly positive atom in one molecule is attracted to a slightly negative atom in another molecule. ( shown with a dotted line)
water will dissociate and break into h+ ions and OH- ions
monomers and polymers
types of polymers made from these monomers
monomers are small molecules that when undergo dehydration synthesis make polymers which are macromolecules meaning they are big. the cycle can continue when polymers undergo hydrolysis which changes the large polymers adding water to make micromolecules ( monomers)
proteins made of amino acids
carbohydrates made of monosaccharides
lipids made of glycerol and fatty acids
nucleic acid made of nucleotides
protein
types of proteins
have diverse structures which make so many types of proteins with different functions, proteins are made of polypeptides which is a change of amino acids each held together by a peptide bond (2 amino acids called dipeptide, 3 called tripeptide, 4 or more is a polypeptide). proteins contain C H O N and sometimes S. the function of a protein depends on how it recognizes and binds to other molecules
structural(collagen) regulatory(hormones) contractile(actin)
transport (hemoglobin) storage(ALBUMIN) Protective(antibodies) membrane(antigen) enzymatic proteins are like biological catalysts speeding up the metabolism (pepsin)
Side chains
(R group) nonpolar- hydrophobic(insoluble)
polar- hydrophilic(slightly charged atoms in molecule attractive to slightly charged atoms in water
electrically charged-hydrophilic- acid have a positive charge bases have a negative charge
physical/ chemical properties of side chains determine the properties of the amino acids and therefore the function of the polypeptides
levels of protein structure
primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary
primary structure
1st- linear chain of amino acids joined together through peptide bonds
dictates secondary and tertiary structure because of the order of the side chains determines the properties
secondary structure
2nd- folded or coiled chain held together by hydrogen bonds between the polar region of the BACKBONE of the amino acids or peptide bond
slightly positive hydrogen ions attracted to slightly negative nitrogen ions. two types of secondary structures; helix and pleated(folded)
helix- hydrogen bonds between every 4th amino acid
pleated- hydrogen bonds parallel to two segments of primary polypeptides
tertiary structure
made of the two types of secondary structures helix an pleated held together by h bonds, disulphide bridges, and hydrophobic interactions from SIDE CHAINS
- hydrophobic interaction- nonpolar group in the core of a protein to avoid water they are held weakly together by van der waal forces (temporary attraction between neutral molecules, the attraction comes from the uneven placement of electrons in the electron cloud corresponding to the other molecule (electrons at the same place at the same time causing a short attraction))
- hydrogen bonds- polar and ionic side chains and held together by hydrogen bonds due to their charges or partial charges
- disulfide bridges- 2 cysteine monomers brought close result in sulphide, sine cysteine contains sulphide, bonding with the other suflide resulting in a disulphide which is a covalent bond
quaternary structure
4th- 2 or more polypeptides make a functional macromolecule ( for only some proteins)
tertiary units grouped together called sub units
held together by peptide bonds
amino acid
two hydrogen connected to nitrogen (amino group) middle contains hydrogen and remainder group, end contains carbon double bonded to oxygen and again bonded to hydroxide making it a carboxyl group ( acid)
amino acid
carbohydrates
made of monosaccharides ( sugar with 5-7 carbon) dissacharides consist of two monosaccharides and polysaccharides consist of many sugars or monosaccharides. sugar names ending one- glucose.
-disaccharides to know- sucrose- made of glucose and fructose. -maltose- made of glucose and glucose. lactose made of glucose and galactose. (keep in mind the disaccharides are formed through dehydration synthesis so all products include water)
-polysaccharides- amylose- starch ( alpha glucose linked together with 1-4 glycosidic linkages which is when carbon 1 is attached to carbon 4 on the next molecule)storage in plants
glycogen- glucose storage in animals( 1-4 glycosidic linkage with alpha glucose) difference is branches of glucose making it more complex
cellulose- structure and storage in plants- beta glucose is used ( oh group reversed) in 1-4 glycosidic linkage this makes the structure straight and allows hydrogen bonds to occur when polysaccharides are side by side. cows can digest cellulose because they contain protists or prokaryotes in digestive track that break them down for them
lipids
non polar- hydrophobic. made of 3 fatty acids and 1 glycerol
-fatty acid has carboxyl group on end( acid) and it is between 16-18 carbon in length, can be saturated( straight) or unsaturated with double/triple bond( bend in shape
*unsaturated fats liquid at room temp because unsatured bonds prevent molecules from closely together since they have bends
glycerol- has 3 carbons each with a hydroxyl group ( oh) attached.
fatty acids carboxyl group bonds to glycerols hydroxyl groups making 3 water and 3 ester -0- linkages the lipid created from fatty acids and glycerol is known also as neutral fat
phospholipids
make cell membranes, made of two fatty acids, glycerol and a phosphate group. the phosphate group has a negative charge making it hydrophilic, while the rest of the lipid is hydrophobic this gives the membrane its properties and allows phospholipid bilayers to form. the charged phosphate group attracts water.
steroids
have four fused carbon rings. different steroids depend on the chemical groups attached to the rings. cholesterol is the precursor to many other steroids including sex hormones
nucleic acid
made of the monomer nucleotides. nucleotides are made of sub units; phosphate group, ribose/deoxyribose(pentose) and a nitrogenous base
-purines are a, g have two rings
pyrimidines are c, t have 1 ring
nucleoside- includes pentose and base but not phosphate.
antiparallel-the sugar and phosphate backbone run in opposite direction meaning phosphate bonded to carbon 3’ in the sugar and carbon 5’ is bonded to the next phosphate group making a pattern of 3’5’3’5’ bonds
polynucleotides- also known as nucleic acid, or many nucleotides its a macro molecule, what I’m saying is it is a polymer you might have to recognize this name.
Chem review- element, compound, isotope, valence shell
element- simplest substance
compound- two or more different elements
C O H N make up 96% of living things
isotope- same number of protons- different number of electrons
valence shell- outer most electrons with highest energy that take place in chemical reactions in contrast closest shell to nucleus has lowest energy
types of bonds
covalent- sharing of electrons- molecule polar= electronegative which is the attraction of an atom in a covalent bond-regions with partial charge.
non polar- no electronegativity
ionic bond- transfer of electrons making positive or negative ions which are atoms that have lost or gained electrons
weak bonds- help molecules adhere and help shape of molecules
h bonds- attraction between partial - atom in molecule to a partial + atom in another molecule
van der waal interactions- polar molecules have electrons in random places, when electrons in certain place they created a temporary charge and therefore attraction to another molecule
chemical equalibrium
chemical reactions are reversible and they do reverse as the experiment runs an equilibrium occurs when forward and reverse rates are reached
cohesion adhesion and surface tension
cohesion- molecules linked together by hydrogen bonds like water molecules
adhesion-clinging of one substance to another
these two attractions pull water up a tree, as water evaporations on the leaf the hydrogen bonds continue to pull water up the xylem, adhesion also helps this
surface tension- the difficulty of breaking the surface of a liquid- water has a high surface tension
waters high specific heat
specific heat is the amount of heat required to change temperature. water has very high specific heat, a lot absorbed and it doesn’t change a lot, and a lot can be released and the temperature doesn’t change a lot. this is due to the hydrogen bonds, they either have to break or reform before water can change temperatures and the breakage of the h bonds absorb heat. this helps water to regulate temperatures.
evaporative cooling
water has a high heat of vaporization, meaning it takes a large amount of heat to break the hydrogen bonds and change the state of water. when the water does evaporate it takes this heat within it with it so the surface water evaporated from is cool
ice, solvent, molarity, moles
- less dense because water molecules are slowing down and can’t break the hydrogen bonds so the hydrogen bonds remain intact.
- water has polar molecules which attractive other molecules with either a charge or a partial charge making it an effective solvent
- number of moles per L of solution
- one grams per mol is how many 6.02x 10(23) atoms ( or molecules) weigh
acids and bases
water molecules dissociate into H+ and OH-, the H+ ion can transfer to another water molecule, turning it into hydronium(H3O+) however it is just represented with H+ this reaction can reverse and reaches a dynamic equilibrium. the pH of a solution increases by increments of 10
buffers
chemicals that maintain the pH of solutions by minimizing changes in H+ ions and OH- ions. the buffer either accepts H+ ions or donates them to neutralize the solution. buffer in blood is carbonic acid (H2CO3) which dissociates into bicarbonate (HCO3-) and H+ ions, they are produced according to the amount needed to neutralize the solution
oceans
CO2 reacts with H2O to form carbonic acid (H2CO3) the carbonic acid dissociates into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions, the H ions bond with carbonate to form more bicarbonate. this is an issue because marine life needs carbonate to form calcium carbonate but since carbonic acid is being introduced to the ocean and turning carbonate into bicarbonate the marine life is not getting enough carbonate
