Ch.6humanbody Flashcards
What is anatomy
Is a field of study that focuses on the physical “structure” of the body and its systems.
What’s is physiology
Examining the normal “functions” and “activities” of these biological components
What is pathophysiology
Is the study of functional “changes” that accompany a particular disease or syndrome.
What is topographic anatomy
The superficial landmarks of the body that serve as guides to the structures that lie beneath them
What is an anatomic position
The position of reference in which the patient stands facing forward, arms at the side,with the palms of the hands forward
Three main axes of the anatomic planes
The coronal (frontal) plane
The Sagittal (lateral) plane
The transverse (axial) plane
Where does the coronal (frontal) plane run?
Runs vertically through the body and divides it into front and back sections
Where does the Sagittal (lateral) plane run?
Runs vertically, but divides the body into left and right sections
Where does the transverse (axial) plane run?
Divides the body horizontally into top and bottoms sections
Where does the midsagittal (midline) plane run
Divides the body into equal left and right halves
Cells that share a common function grow close to each other, forming
Tissues
Groups of tissues that perform similar or interrelated jobs form
Organs
The skeletal system serves many functions, but some of the most obvious are to ___(3 things)
Provide structural support to bear the bodys weight
Establish a framework to attach soft tissues and internal organs
Protect vital organs such as the heart and lungs
The red marrow found within the internal cavities of many bones produces
Red blood cells
How many bones are in the skeletal system
206
The 206 bones that compose the skeletal system are divided between the
Axial and appendicular skeletons
The axial skeleton forms the longitudinal axis of the body, from the
Skull to the tailbone, or coccyx. It includes the skull, facial bones, thoracic cage, and vertebral column.
The appendicular skeleton comprises the upper and lower extremities (arms and legs) and the points by which they connect with the
Axial skeleton (eg, the shoulder)
The pelvis includes portions from both the
Axial and appendicular skeletons
A ______ is where two bones meet
Joint
The names of most joints are formulated by combining the names of these adjoining bones. For example, the sternoclavicular joint is the articulation between the
Sternum and the clavicle
The degree to which a joint can move is determined by how the
ligaments hold the bone ends and by the configuration of the bones themselves
The fibrous tissues that connect bone to bone, helping to stabilize these joints, are called
Ligaments
The semirigid yet flexible tissue that covers and cushions the ends of articulating bones is called
Cartilage
The tissues that attach bone to muscle are called
Tendons
Joints that have grown together to form a very stable connection. Only slight motion is possible
Symphyses
Ligament connects
Bone to bone
Tendon connects
Muscle to bone
Cartilage
Cushion between bones
The bone ends of a joint are held together by a fibrous sac called the
Joint capsule
The connection point between the pelvis and the vertebral column
Sacroiliac joint
In moving joints, the ends of the bones are covered with a thin layer of cartilage known as
Articular cartilage
This cartilage is a pearly white substance that allows the ends of the bones to glide easily
Articular cartilage
On the inner lining of the joint capsule is the ____. This special tissue is responsible for making a thick lubricant called synovial fluid
Synovial membrane
The shoulder joint is a ______ joint
Ball and socket joint
A joint that allows rotation and bending
Ball and socket joint
The finger joints, elbow, and knee are _____ joints
Hinge joints
These joints are motion restricted to flexion ( bending) and extension (straightening)
Hinge joints
The skull consists of ___ bones
28
The skull bones are divided into three groups
The cranium, the facial bones, and the threes small bones in the ear
The cranium comprises the
Frontal bones, temporal bones, parietal bones. Occipital bone , ethmoid bone, and sphenoid bone
At the base of the cranium , a large opening called the ____ serves as the passageway for the spinal cord to connect with the brain and descend into the spinal, or vertebral column
Foramen magnum
The 14 facial bones include the
upper jawbones (maxillae), the lower jawbone(mandible), and the cheek bones (zygomas)
What is the upper jawbones called
Maxillae
What is the lower jawbone called
Mandible
What are the cheek bones called
Zygomas
The _____ is not a bone itself; it is a cavity formed by the joining of multiple facial bones.
The orbit, or eye socket
The ___ consists of 33 vertebrae
The vertebral column or spinal column
The vertebrae can be divided into five sections called
Cervical vertebrae (7)
Thoracic vertebrae (12)
Lumbar vertebrae (5)
Sacral vertebrae (5)
Coccygeal (4)
The first seven vertebrae in the neck form the
Cervical spine
The next 12 vertebrae make up the ___. One pair of ribs is attached to each of the __ vertebrae
Thoracic spine
The next five vertebrae after the thoracic
Lumbar spine
The five sacral vertebrae are fused together to form one bone called the ___. The ___ joins the iliac bones of the pelvis via strong ligaments at the sacroiliac joints
Sacrum
The last four vertebrae, also fused together ,form the ___, or the tailbone
Coccyx
The vertebrae are connected by ligaments. And the gaps between the vertebrae are occupied by cushioning, shock absorbing structures called
Intervertebral disks
These ligaments and disks permit a limited degree of motion, while preventing any extreme movement that might harm the spinal cord
Ligaments and intervertebral disks
The thorax (chest) contains the
Heart, lungs, esophagus, and great vessels ( the aorta and the superior and inferior venae cavae
______ is formed by the 12 thoracic vertebrae and their 12 pairs of ribs
The thorax
Midline on the anterior surface of the chest is the
Sternum (breastbone)
The sternum has three main parts
The manubrium
The body
The xiphoid process
The uppermost section of the sternum is the
Manubrium
The superior edge of the manubrium forms a landmark called the
Sternal notch
Immediately inferior to the manubrium is the sternal__
Body, the largest bony section of the sternum
The inferior tip of the sternum is formed by a narrow, cartilaginous structure called the
Xiphoid process
The upper extremities (arms) extend distally from the pectoral girdle (shoulder) which comprises the
Clavicle (collarbone) and the scapula (shoulder blade)
The medial end of the clavicle articulates with the manubrium of the sternum; this is the only joint that directly connects the shoulder girdle and the
Axial skeleton
The clavicles lateral end articulates with the
Scapula (shoulder blade)
The scapula is supported and positioned by ____ and has no bony or ligamentous connections to the thoracic cage
Skeletal muscles
The bones of the shoulder girdle include the __ and ____
Clavicle and scapula
The scapula articulates with the proximal head of the ___, the single bone of the upper arm
Humerus
Distally , the humerus articulates with the two bones that make up the forearm: the ___ on the lateral, or thumb,side and the ____ on the medial or little finger side
Radius and ulna
At their distal ends, the radius and ulna articulate with the proximal row of wrist bones, via a modified _____ joint
Ball and socket
The eight bones that form the wrist are called
Carpals
Extending from the carpals are five ___ which form the palm of the hand
Metacarpals
The metacarpals in turn articulate With the bones of the fingers, or ___
Phalanges
The thumb is composed of __ phalanges (proximal and distal)
Two
The remaining four fingers each contain _____ phalanges (proximal,middle,and distal)
Three
The major bones in the wrist and hand include the __,____, and ___
Carpals,metacarpals, phalanges
The pelvic girdle consists of two large hip bones called the ___. The ___ and the ___
Coxae, the sacrum , and the coccyx
Each coxa is formed by the fusion of three bones__
The ilium, the ischium, and the pubis
Joining the left and right pubic bones is a cartilaginous articulation that limits movement between these two bones; this structure is called the
Pubic symphysis
The pelvis articulates with the femur bone of the leg at the hip joint, or____
Acetabulum
Is a closed, bony ring that consists of the sacrum, ilium, ischium,pubis,acetabulum,and pubic symphysis
The pelvis
Is the longest and one of the strongest bones in the body
The femur (thigh bone)
The femurs rounded superior end is referred to as the
Femoral head
The femoral head articulates with the _____ of the pelvic girdle by a ball and socket joint
Acetabulum
Immediately inferior and lateral to the femoral head is the narrowed ___
Femoral neck
A projection called the __ is located proximal row the femoral head and neck on the lateral side of the femur
Greater trochanter
A second projection called the __ is found on the medial side of the femur just inferior to the femoral neck
Lesser trochanter
Both ___ serve as anchor points for the major muscles of the thigh
Trochanters
The major parts of the lower extremities include the __
Femur , femoral head, greater and lesser trochanters, patella, tibia, and fibula
At the inferior end of the femur , a thing mount commonly referred to as the ___ connects the femur to the bones of the lower leg
Knee
The anterior side of the knee is covered by a specialized bone called the
Patella (kneecap)
The lower leg comprises two bones :
The tibia and fibula
The larger of the two lower leg bones, the ____ articulates with the inferior end of the femur at the knee joint. It is positioned on the medial side of the lower leg and can be palpated along its entire length on the anterior surface of the leg, just beneath the skin.
Tibia (shinbone)
The smaller ___ lies in the lateral side of the lower leg
Fibula
The ankle joint includes protrusions from the broadened distal ends of the ___ and ___
Tibia and fibula
On the lateral side. The fibulas lateral ___ can be palpated
Malleolus (ankle bone)
On the medial side. The prominence from the distal tibia is called the medial _____
Malleolus (ankle bone)
The foot comprises the
Tarsals,metatarsals, and phalanges
The seven tarsals include the large ____ and the talus
Calcaneus(heel bone) and the talus
The distal ends of the tibia and fibula articulate with the ____ to form the ankle
Talus
The thing joint of the ankle allows __ and ___ of the foot
Flexion and extension
The five ___ bones form the middle of the foot
Metatarsal
The bottom surface of the foot is referred to as the __ surface while the top of the foot is described as the sprain or dorsal surface
Plantar
The five toes are formed by ____ phalanges with two in the great toe and three in each of the remaining toes
14
Another function of the skeletal system is the storage of
Calcium
Is essential to the formation of hard , resilient bones. It is also vital to the function and well being of other body systems.
Calcium
The skeletal system plays a crucial role in the creation of various types of blood cells and components. As the need arises (eg,existing blood cells die), specialized cells present in the marrow can be transformed into ___,___, and ___
Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets
Is form of tissue that facilitates movement
Muscle
The human body contains three types of muscle :
Skeletal, smooth, and cardiac
___, so named because it attaches to the bones of the skeleton, accounts for the bulk of human muscle mass.
Skeletal muscle
Because of its characteristic striped appearance, ___ muscle is often referred to as striated muscle. It is also known as a voluntary muscle because its movements are under our conscious control
Skeletal muscle
The activities of smooth muscle and cardiac muscle do not require conscious thought. You do not need to “make” your heart beat. For this reason smooth and cardiac muscles are recognized as
Involuntary muscle
____ muscle is found within blood vessels and the intestines
Smooth muscle
When you hear your stomach growling you are in fact hearing the rhythmic ____ contractions of the intestines
Smooth muscle
_____ muscle is unique from other muscle types in that it can generate its own electrical impulses
Cardiac muscle
Is a term that refers to a partnership between bone and muscle
Musculoskeletal
Skeletal muscles often function in ____ pairs
Antagonistic pairs
The muscles of the upper arm include the __ which is located on the anterior aspect of the humerus
Biceps
The bicep muscle bends the elbow by moving the lower part of the arm toward the head. If the muscle were working alone you would have little control over the speed of that movement. The way the body achieves control and fine movement is to have the biceps compete against another muscle group. The biceps competes with the _ muscle , which is the three head muscle of the back of the arm that functions to straighten the elbow
Triceps
Without the ___ you would slap yourself in the face every time you bend your arm
Triceps
The __ works to slow the movement of the triceps as the arm is extended
Biceps
There are more than __ muscles in the musculoskeletal system
600
What is this muscle
Location : anterior ,humerus
Function : flexes lower arm
Biceps
What is this muscle
Location: posterior, humerus
Function: extends lower arm
Triceps
What is this muscle
Location: anterior,thorax
Function: flexes and rotates arm
Pectoralis
What is this muscle
Location: posterior thorax
Extends and rotates arm
Latissimus Dorsi
What is this muscle
Location: anterior abdomen
Function : flexes and rotates the spine
Rectus abdominis
What is this muscle
Location : anterior tibia
Function : points foot toward head
Tibialis anterior
What is this muscle
Location : posterior tibia
Function : points foot away from head
Gastrocnemius
What is this muscle
Location: anterior femur
Function: extends lower leg
Quadriceps (four separate muscles)
What is this muscle
Location: posterior femur
Function : flexes lower leg
Biceps femoris
What is this muscle
Location: posterior pelvis :buttocks
Function: extends and rotates thigh
Gluteus (three separate muscles)
The musculoskeletal system has several functions. One of these is production of heat. When a person is cold, shivering begins. This involuntarily shaking of the muscles generates heat, thereby maintaining ____
Homeostasis
Muscles also protect underlying structures such as the internal _
Organs
During inhalation, the diaphragm and intercoastal muscles ___
Contract
During exhalation , the diaphragm and intercoastal muscles ____
Relax
The respiratory system is the set of organs responsible for breathing, or respiration, and the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide that occurs within the lungs. It includes the __
Nose, mouth,throat,larynx,trachea,
Bronchi,and bronchioles
The respiratory system also includes the lungs, where oxygen is passed into the blood and ____ removed
Carbon dioxide
The respiratory system includes the diaphragm, the muscles of the chest wall and _____ muscles of breathing ,which permit normal respiratory movement
Accessory muscles
The structures of the upper airway are located anteriorly at the midline. In descending order,they include the following:
Nasopharynx
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx
Larynx (voice box)
At the base of the ____,the vocal cords(ie,glottis), mark the transition point from the upper airway to the lower airway
Larynx
The nose and moth lead to the
Oropharynx
The pharynx is composed of the ___
Nasopharynx
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx
The nasel passages and ___ warm,filter, and humidity air as you breath
Nasopharynx
Food,liquids,and air all can travel through the Oropharynx,but on reaching the Laryngopharynx they must diverge,with food/liquids continuing posteriorly into the ___while air proceeds to the anteriorly positioned larynx(voice box) and trachea (windpipe)
Esophagus
The ___ does not tolerate any solid or liquid material and any contact will result in a violent episode of coughing and spasm of the vocal cords
Larynx
To help keep food and liquids out of the trachea while permitting air to pass, a thin, lead shaped flap___ covers the larynx during swallowing and then lifts open to allow for air passage during breathing
Epiglottis
Structures of the lower airway include the
Trachea, the bronchial tree(main stem bronchi and bronchioles), the alveoli, and the lungs
The ___ which tends to be more visible in men, is in the anterior midline portion of the neck. This cartilage is the anterior part of the larynx
Thyroid cartilage
Immediately below the thyroid cartilage is the palpable
Cricoid cartilage
Between the thyroid and cricoid cartilage lies the ___, which can be felt as a depression in the midline of the neck just inferior to the thyroid cartilage.
Cricothyroid membrane
Below the cricoid cartilage is the
Trachea
The __ is approximately 5 inches (13cm) long and is a semirigid, enclosed air tube made up of rings of cartilage that are open in the back
Trachea
The rings of cartilage keep the __ from collapsing when air moves into and out of the lungs. Air and other gases enter the __ _!| proceed to the lungs
Trachea
The two lungs are held in place by the
Trachea
Arteries and veins
Pulmonary ligaments
Each lung is divided into lobes. The right lung has ___lobes
The left lung has__lobes
Three lobs:upper,middle,and lower
Two lobes:upper and lower
The lungs are supplied air by the right and left main stem bronchi which are two tubes that branch from the trachea at a structure called the __
Carina
Each bronchus enters its respective lung and branches into smaller and smaller airways called
Bronchioles
The bronchioles end in about 700 million tiny,grapelike clusters of air sacs called
Alveoli
It is within these alveolar sacs that oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged between the lungs and the
Bloodstream
The alveoli are referred to as the functional units of the
Respiratory system
The walls of the alveoli contain a network of tiny blood vessels (pulmonary capillaries)that carry __from the body to the lungs(for removal through exhalation) and oxygen from the lungs to the body
Carbon dioxide
Covering each lung is a layer of smooth,glistening tissue called
Pleura
Another layer of pleura lines the inside of the chest cavity. The two layers are called __(covering the lungs) and ___(lining the chest wall). Between these two layers is a small amount of fluid that permits smooth gliding of the tissues. This is similar in concept to how joints work
Visceral pleura(covering the lungs)
Parietal pleura(lining the chest wall)
Between the parietal pleura and the visceral pleura is the __ called a potential space because under normal conditions,the space does not exist. These two layers are usually sealed tightly to one another by a thin film of fluid. When the chest wall expands the lung is pulled with it and made to expand by the force exerted through these closely applied pleural surfaces. When blood or air leaks into the ___, however , the surfaces separate
Pleural space
There are several muscles involved in making the lungs expand and contract. The primary muscle of breathing is the
Diaphragm
The __ is unique because of its characteristics of voluntary (skeletal) and involuntary (smooth) muscles
Diaphragm
It is a dome shaped muscle that divides the thorax from the abdomen and is pierced by the great vessels and the esophagus. It acts like a voluntary muscle when you take a deep breath,cough,or hold your breath. You control these variations in the way you breathe
Diaphragm
Unlike other skeletal or voluntary muscles,the diaphragm performs an automatic function. Breathing continues during sleep and at all other times. Even though you can hold your breath or temporarily breathe faster or slower,you cannot continues these variations in breathing pattern indefinitely. When the concentration of ___ becomes too high, automatic regulation of breathing resumes
Carbon dioxide
The other muscles involved in breathing are the ___ muscles,__,___,___
Neck(cervical) muscles
Intercoastal muscles
Abdominal muscles
Pectoral muscles
During inhalation,the diaphragm and intercoastal muscles contract. When the diaphragm contracts it moves down slightly, enlarging the ____ from top to bottom
Thoracic cage
When the intercostal muscles contract, they move the ribs up and out. These actions combine to enlarge the chest cavity in all dimensions. As the volume of the chest cavity increases,pressure in the cavity falls and air rushes into the lungs . This is referred to as ____ breathing because air is essentially sucked into the lungs. This part of the cycle is active,requiring the muscles to contract
Negative pressure breathing
During exhalation, the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles relax. Unlike inhalation, exhalation does not normally require muscular effort. As these muscles relax, all dimensions of the thorax decrease, and the ribs and muscles assume a normal resting position. When the volume of the chest cavity decreases, air in the lungs is compressed into a smaller space. Pressure is increased, and air is pushed out through the trachea. This phase of the cycle is
Passive
There are two separate yet interdependent overall functions of the respiratory system
Ventilation and respiration
____ is the process of gas exchange. ___provides the much needed oxygen to cells and removes the waste product carbon dioxide.this exchange of gases also helps to control the pH of the blood
Respiration
As blood travels through the body its delivers oxygen and to cells. At the ___, oxygen is offloaded from red blood cells. It passes through the thin capillary wall and enters the tissue cells.where it is used to produce energy. Carbon dioxide and cell wastes are transported in the reverse, leaving the cells ,crossing the capillary walls, and entering the bloodstream
Capillaries
Each time you take a breath, the alveoli receive a supply of oxygen-rich air. Recall that the oxygen then passes into a network of pulmonary capillaries, which” are located in the wälls of the alveoli. The walls of the capillaries and the alveoll are extremely thin. Thus, air in the alveoli and blood in the capillaries are only separated by two thin layers of tissue. Oxygen and carbon dioxide pass rapidly across these thin tissue layers by _____. ______ is a passive process in which molecules move from an area with a higher concentration of molecules (oxygen in the air) to an area of lower concentration (oxygen in the bloodstream). There are more oxygen molecules in the alveoli than in the blood.
Therefore, the oxygen molecules move from the alveoli into the blood. Because there are more carbon dioxide molecules in the blood than in the inhaled air, carbon dioxide moves from the blood into the alveoli. This process is completely passive-nature döes all the work.
Diffusion
Exhaled air contains__ oxygen and __to__ carbon dioxide ; the rest is nitrogen
16% oxygen
3% to 5% carbon dioxide
The brain—-specifically the ____ controls breathing
Brainstem
The brain automatically controls breathing if the level of _____ or oxygen in the arterial blood is too high or too low. In fact, adjustments can be made in just one breath. For these reasons, you cannot hold your breath indefinitely or breathe rapidly and deeply indefinitely.
Carbon dioxide
Breathing occurs as the result of a buildup of carbon dioxide ,which causes the pH to decrease in the ___
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
___ is a colorless fluid in and around the brain and spinal cord that cushions these structures and filters out impurities and toxins. The cells are constantly working to eliminate carbon dioxide to regulate the acid-alkaline balance of the body. When the level of carbon dioxide becomes too high, a slight change occurs in the pH (the measure of acidity) of the ____. The medulla oblongata (a portion of the brainstem), which is sensitive to pH changes, stimulates the phrenic nerve, sending a signal to the diaphragm to increase its rate of contraction. As the diaphragm becomes more active, the respiratory rate and tidal volume increase (discussed later in this chapter). As minute volume increases, more carbon dioxide is exhaled. The primary reason you breathe is to lower your level of carbon dioxide, not to increase your level of oxygen.
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
The body also has a backup system to control respiration called the ______. When the oxygen level falls, this system will also stimulate breathing. There are areas in the brain, the walls of the aorta, and the carotid arteries that act as oxygen sensors. These sensors are easily satisfied by minimal levels of oxygen in the arterial blood. Therefore, the backup system, the ______, is much less sensitive and less powerful than the carbon dioxide sensors in the
Hypoxic drive
A child’s ___ and __\ are much smaller than those of an adult
Nose and mouth
The ___ takes up proportionally more space in a child’s mouth than an adults mouth
Tongue
Besides the nose and mouth. A child’s __,___,and___ are smaller ,softer,and more flexible as well. This makes the mechanics of breathing much more delicate. A child’s pharynx is also smaller and less deeply curved
Larynx , cricoid cartilage,and trachea
It is known that the ___ is primarily responsible for initiating the ventilation cycle and is primarily stimulated by Hugh carbod dioxide levels. The function of the __ is to keep you breathing without having to think about it. The __ helps control the rhythm of breathing,initiates inspiration,sets the base pattern for respirations, and sends signals down the phrenic nerve to the diaphragm, triggering it to contract
Medulla oblongata
The __,another area within the brainsteam,has two areas,both of which help augment respirations during emotional or physical stress. The __ is involved in changing the death of inspiration,expiration,or both. The medulla and the ___ work together to help you get the right amount of air when you need it .
The pons
An adult man has a total lung capacity of ml. An adult woman has about one-third less total capacity because the lung size is smaller
6,000 mL
Typical lung volumes for residual,inspiratoryreserve,
expiratory reserve, tidal volume (number)
Residual volume 1,200
Inspiration reserve volume 3,000
Expiratory reserve volume 1,200
Tidal volume 500
Is the amount of air that is moved into or out of the lungs during a single breath, generally 500 mL in an adult
Tidal volume
Is the deepest breath you can take after a normal breath
Inspiratory reserve volume
Is the maximum amount of air that you can forcibly breathe out after a normal breath le
Expiratory reserve volume
Gas remains in the lungs after exhalation simply to keep the lungs open. This is the
Residual volume
A loss of ___ occurs when a person is hit in the chest and has the “wind knocked out “ of him or her
Residual volume
Is the portion of the respiratory system that has no alveoli,and,therefore,little or no exchange of gas between air and blood occurs. The mouth,trachea,bronchi,and bronchioles are all considered ____
Dead space
Is is the amount of air that moves into and out of the lungs in 1 minute
Minute volume
Respiratory rate x tidal volume =
Minute volume
Type of breathing characterized by significant effort and may require the use of accessory muscles in the chest,neck,and abdomen.
Labored breathing
Normal respiratory rate ranges for
Adults
Children
Infants
12 to 20
12 to 40
30 to 60
A patient in cardiac arrest may appear to be breathing. These occasional, gasping breaths are called ____ and occur when the respiratory center in the brain continues to send signals to the breathing muscles. However, these gasps are inadequate because they come at a slöw rate and are generally shallow. Patients with _____ need artificial ventilations and, most likely, chest compressions. Both topics will be discussed in later chapters.
Agonal gasps
Is a complex arrangement of connected tubes, including the arteries , arterioles, capillaries,venues, and veins. Another name for this system is the cardiovascular (heart/blood vessels) system.
Circulatory system
There are two circuits in the body: the ___ in the body and the ___ in the lungs
Systemic circulation
Pulmonary circulation
The __ circulation, the circuit in the body, carries oxygen-rich blood from the left ventricle through the body and back to the right atrium. In the ___ circulation, as blood passes through the tissues and organs, it gives up oxygen and nutrients and absorbs cellular wastes and carbon dioxide
Systemic circulation
The ____ circulation, the circuit in the lungs, carries oxygen-poor blood from the right ventricle through the lungs and back to the left atrium. In the ____ circulation, as blood passes through the lungs, it is refreshed with oxygen and gives up carbon dioxide
Pulmonary circulation
Pulmonary arteries bring oxygen poor blood from the ___ to the ___
Heart
Lungs
Pulmonary veins bring oxygen rich blood from the ___ to the ___
Lungs
Heart
Is a hollow muscular organ approximately the size of a clenched fist. It is made of a specialized muscle tissue called cardiac muscle or myocardium and works as two paired pumps ;the left side is more muscular
Heart
Each side of the heart is divided into an upper chamber _____ and a lower chamber ______
Atrium
Ventricle
The ___ side of the heart, which pumps blood to the body, 8: a high pressure pump;
Left side
The ___ side of the heart supples blood to the lungs and is a low pressure pump
Right
The heart is an _____ muscle
Involuntary
The heart is an involuntary muscle. As such, it is under the control of the _____ system
Autonomic nervous system
It is also unlike skeletal and smooth muscle in its requirement for a continuous supply of oxygen and nutrients , as it cannot function on anaerobic metabolism
The heart
The heart muscles blood supply comes from the
Aorta
The __ has two branches at its base that form the left and right coronary arteries. These arteries supply the heart muscle with oxygenated blood
Aorta
At each heart beat, __to__ of blood is ejected from the adult heart
70 to 80 mL
The amount of blood moves in one beat is called the
Stroke volume (SV)
The amount of blood moved in 1 minute is called the
Cardiac output (CO)
Heart rate x stroke volume =
Cardiac output
Each mechanical contraction of the heart is associated with two electrical processes. The first is _____, during which the electrical charges on the surface of the muscle cell change from positive to negative. The second is _____,during which the heart returns to its resting state and the positive charge is restored to the surface
Depolarization
Repolarization
When the heart is working normally, the electrical impulse begins high in the atria at the ___ node,then travels to the ____ node and bundle of His,and moves through the purkinje fibers to the ventricles. This movement produces a smooth flow of electricity through the heart ,which depolarizes the muscle and produces a coordinated pumping contraction.
Sinoatrial node
Atrioventricular node
The arteries carry blood from the heart to all body tissues. They branch into smaller arteries and then into arterioles. The arterioles, in turn, branches into the vast network of ___
Capillaries
The aorta divides at the level of the ___ into two common iliac arteries that lead to the lower extremities
Umbilicus
All branches of the aorta ultimately become ___ leading into the body’s capillary network
Arterioles
The middle layer of the artery is the ___ , formed from smooth muscles that can contract and dilate to change the diameter of the blood vessel
Tunica media
Names of central pulses
Carotid artery pulse
Femoral artery pulse
Names of peripheral pulses
Radial artery pulse
Brachial artery pulse
Posterior tibial artery pulse
Dorsalis pedis artery pulse
Locations on where pulse is felt
Carotid pulse
Femoral pulse
Radial pulse
Brachial pulse
Posterior tibial pulse
Dorsalis pedis pulse
At the upper portion of the neck
In the groin
At the wrist at the base of the thumb
On the medial aspect of the arm, midway between the elbow and shoulder
Posterior to the medial Malleolus
On the top of the foot
Blood in the ____ is characteristically bright red, because its hemoglobin is rich in oxygen.
Arteries
Blood in the __ is dark blue-red,because its hemoglobin has passed though a capillary bed and given up its oxygen to the cells.
Veins
Once oxygen depleted blood passes through the network of capillaries, it moves to the __ which are the smallest branches of the veins.
Venules
___have much thinner walls than arteries and are generally larger in diameter
Veins
The veins become larger and larger and ultimately form two major vessels called the
Superior and inferior venae cavae
The ____ carries blood returning from the head neck shoulders and upper extremities. Blood from the abdomen pelvis and lower extremities passes through the __
Superior vena cava
Inferior vena cava
The superior and inferior venae cavae join at the ____ of the heart
Right atrium
The body ___ blood vessels to change the size of the total blood volume container. A smaller container that has the same amount of liquid as the original container means a higher liquid pressure
Constricts
The state of the blood vessels—how dilated or constricted they are—- is referred to as the
Systemic vascular resistance (SVR)
Is the resistance to blood flow within all blood vessels except the pulmonary vessels
Systemic vascular resistance (SVR)
The effects of a constricted blood vessel
Decreased size of container. Increased pressure within container
The effects of a normal diameter blood vessel
Balance of size and pressure within
Effects of a dilated blood vessel
Increased size of container
Decreased pressure within container
Blood is composed of
Plasma
Red blood cells
White blood cells
Platelets
And protein molecules
_____or erythrocytes,contain hemoglobin,a protein responsible for carrying oxygen
Red blood cells
____or leukocytes,play an important role in the body’s immune defense against infection
White blood cells
__are tiny disc shaped elements that are much smaller than the cells. They are essential in the initial formation of a blood clot
Platelets
Is the liquid portion of the blood that carries the blood cells,hormones,and nutrients. About 99% of its composition is water and proteins.
Plasma
The ___ is a solid organ located under the rib cage in the left upper quadrant of the abdomen. Although it is a lymphatic organ, it plays an important supportive role for the circulatory system. Red blood cells have a life span of about 120 days. As they age and degrade, they are filtered from the bloodstream and digested in the __ and liver. Hemoglobin is then recycled.
Because its tissue is delicate and due to its position directly under flexible ribs (with very little soft tissue to cushion it), the ___ is one of the most frequently injured abdominal organs after blunt trauma. And because it is so highly vascular, an injured ____can produce significant internal bleeding
Spleen
Is the force of circulating blood against the walls of the arteries
Blood pressure (BP)
When the left ventricle of the heart contracts it pumps blood into the aorta. This phase in the cardiac cycle is called ___
Systole
The pressure inside the arteries during this time is referred to as the systolic blood pressure
The time between contractions when the ventricle is relaxed and refilling with blood is called__
Diastole
The resting pressure in the arteries during this phase is the diastolic blood pressure
The values of the systolic and diastolic pressures are measured with a
Sphygmomanometer (blood pressure cuff)
Difference between systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure. Provides information about the body’s response to stress
Pulse pressure
Amount of blood returning to the heart. Too little _ and blood pressure falls. Too high_ and the heart cannot move blood effectively
Preload
The average adult has approximately _L of blood
Children have to L depending on age and size.
Infants have about _mL
Adult 6L
Child 2 to 3 L
Infant 300 mL
Is the circulation of blood in an organ or tissue
Perfusion
Hypoperfusion (inadequate perfusion) affecting the entire body is called
Shock
(HRxSV) x SVR =
Or
CO x SVR =
Mean arterial pressure (MAP)
One measure of perfusion that can detect shock and that is often displayed on automated blood pressure monitors is __. The __ indicates the average arterial pressure during systole and diastole.
Mean arterial pressure (MAP)
Consider the movement of blood and its ultimate function of perfusion. You know that capillaries are the smallest portions of the circulatory system, where materials are able to exit and enter the bloodstream. Nutrients move from the capillaries into the interstitial space (space between the cells) and into the intracellular space (within the cell). Wastes move from the cells through the interstitial space and into the capillaries
Inside the capillary, two main forces are at work:___ pressure and ___ pressure. ___ pressure occurs as fluid pushes against the vessel walls to force fluid out of the capillary.___ pressure is the opposing force and occurs because proteins in the blood plasma cause water to be pulled into the capillary by diffusion
The movement of fluid into and out of the capillaries occurs as follows. Blood flows into the arterial side of the capillary.
Water is forced out because the pressure is high. At the same time, water is trying to enter the capillary. Pressure on the arterial side is higher, so the __ pressure is also higher, and water, carrying nutrients, leaves the capillary and enters the interstitial space. The hydrostatic pressure is greatly diminished, however, by the time the fluid reaches the venous side because the effort of pushing the fluid out of the capillary decreased its force. This decrease in pressure is beneficial because oncotic pressure is still pulling fluid into the capillary and the pressure is higher. Water, with all of the wastes from the cells, enters the venous side of the capillary. These wastes are then carried away
hydrostatic
oncotic
Blood under pressure will gush or spurt intermittently from an ___. When blood comes from a __,it flows in a steady stream. From__ blood will ooze at many tiny individual points. Clotting after venous or capillary bleeding normally takes from 6 to 10 minutes
Artery
Vein
Capillaries
The___ system sends commands to the adrenal glands (which sit atop the kidneys) where two hormones, epinephrine (also known as adrenaline) and norepinephrine (also known as noradrenaline), are secreted to stimulate the heart and blood vessels. The release of epinephrine and norepinephrine affects receptors within the heart and blood vessels and improves the ability to cope with stress, known as the fight-or-flight reaction.
sympathetic nervous system
The heart and blood vessels have ___ receptors and ___receptors within them. Adrenergic simply means related to the adrenal gland, where epinephrine and norepinephrine are made. The alpha-adrenergic receptors are found in the blood vessels. When stimulated, the blood vessels constrict, thereby increasing blood pressure The beta-adrenergic receptors are found in the heart and lungs. When beta-1 receptors are stimulated, they cause the heart to increase its rate and also squeeze harder with each contraction. This increases cardiac output. When beta-2 receptors are stimulated, the bronchi in the lungs dilate. This allows more air to be inhaled and exhaled, therefore, more oxygen is available to the cells of the body. Together, the alpha- and beta-adrenergic receptors prepare the body for fight or flight.
The parasympathetic nervous system also has effects on the cardiovascular system. When stimulated, this system causes the heart to slow and beat more weakly.
alpha-adrenergic
beta-adrenergic
How is the brain alerted to what is happening at the feet liver or the heart! Signals are sent through the nervous system from special pressure sensors (________) spread throughout the body, which all the brain to receive information about blood pressure
Barorecptors
Is perhaps the most complex organ system within the human body. It comprises the brain,spinal cord,and thousands of nerves spread throughout the body. This system has many functions,such as the control of breathing ,heart rate, and blood pressure.
Nervous system
The nervous system is divided into two main portions
The central nervous system (CNS) (brain and spinal cord)
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) (the nerves outside of the brain and spinal cord that link the CNS to various organs throughout the body)
The peripheral nervous system can be further divided into the ___ and ___ nervous systems
Somatic and autonomic
The ___ nervous system regulates activities over which we have voluntary control,such as walking ,talking and writing
Somatic nervous system
The ___ system controls those functions that occur autonomously (ie,automatically), including digestion ,dilation and constriction of blood vessels ,sweating and other involuntary actions.
Autonomic nervous system
The ___ accounts for the largest portion of the brain (about three-fourths). Its surface, the cortex, is made up of neurons (nerve cell) bodies, which give it a gray-brown color (thus the reason why the ___ is sometimes called the gray matter). The cerebrum is responsible for higher brain functions, such as interpreting what we see, hear, or feel; encoding and decoding speech; reasoning and learning; controlling precise muscle movements (ie, fine motor control); and managing emotions
Cerebrum
The cerebrum can be divided into right and left halves, or hemispheres. These hemispheres can be further divided into lobes. In general, control of one side of the body belongs to the hemisphere on the opposite side (eg, the left hemisphere controls the movements of the right leg). Each hemisphere has four lobes:
Frontal
Parietal
Temporal
Occipital
No single lobe operates entirely on its own; complex relationships exist between them and with other parts of the brain. However, each lobe has a certain set of duties for which it is recognized as having the greatest degree of control. For example, personality, judgment, planning, problem solving, concentration, and self-awareness all are attributed to the ___.
frontal lobe
The ___ lobe controls our recognition of spatial relationships and it integrates sensory information received from the body to form our perception of the world around us.
parietal
The ___ lobe is responsible for vision.
occipital
Taste, hearing, and our ability to understand words all are functions of the lobe.
Temporal
Located beneath the cerebrum is the__, a structure that controls balance, muscle coordination, and posture.
Without the ___, highly specialized muscular activities such as writing would be impossible
cerebellum
Deep within the cranium, the well-protected ___ acts as a relay center connecting the cerebrum and cerebellum to the spinal cord. It is the most primitive part of the CNS, controlling virtually all involuntary, life-sustaining functions, such as heart rate, breathing, temperature regulation, digestion, vomiting, swallowing, coughing, and the wake/sleep cycle. The ___ comprises the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata
brainstem
The brainsteam comprises the
midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata
One noteworthy feature within the brainsteam is a network of neurons called ___. One of its functions is to regulate consciousness. In a concussion from a head injury, the immediate loss of consciousness is due I a momentary interruption in the __
Reticular activating system (RAS)
In addition to filtering out impurities and toxins, ___ absorbs shocks. When significant forces are applied to the head, __allows the brain to shift inside the skull without being damaged. Some skull fractures may allow ___to leak from the ears or nose. This is considered a significant finding.
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
The spinal cord is a continuation of the brain stem. It exits the skull at the foramen magnum and extends down to the level of the second ____
Lumbar vertebra (L2)
The autonomic nervous system is divided between the __ and ___ nervous systems
Sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
Is the largest single organ in the body.
Cutaneous membrane or skin
The cutaneous membrane, or skin, is the largest single organ in the body. It has two major components: the epidermis and the dermis. Beneath these layers is
subcutaneous tissue
While skin covers the entire external surface of the body, it does not cover the various openings to the body such as the mouth, nose, anus, and vagina. Instead, these structures are lined with____. ____ are quite similar to skin in that they provide a protective barrier against bacterial invasion. However, they differ from skin in that they secrete mucus, a watery substance that lubricates and keeps them moist. A continuous____ lines the entire length of the gastrointestinal tract, from mouth to anus.
mucous membrane
Adjacent to hair follicles, ____ glands secrete an oily substance called sebum along the hair follicles to the skin surface. Sebum seals the surface, waterproofing the skin and preventing it from drying and cracking
sebaceous
Located beneath the epidermis, the ___ is home to the sweat glands, sebaceous (oil) glands, hair follicles, blood vessels, and nerve endings. Sweat reaches the surface of the skin by way of small pores, or ducts, that pass from sweat glands in the ___ and up through the epidermis. Sweat helps to cool the body.
dermis
The major organ for regulation of body temperature is the skin. Blood vessels in the skin__when the body is in a cold environment and dilate when the body is in a warm environment
Constrict
In a cold environment, construction of the blood vessels ___ the blood away from the skin to decrease the amount of heat radiated from the body surface
Shunts
When the environment is hot the vessels in the skin dilate, brining the blood __to the surface. The skin becomes flushed (red) and head radiates from the body surface
Closer
The digestive system is also called the
Gastrointestinal system
The digestive system is composed of the gastrointestinal tract (stomach and intestines),mouth,salivary glands,pharynx,esophagus,liver,
Gallbladder,pancreas,rectum, and anus
The processing of food that nourishes the individual cells of the body
Digestion
In the___ quadrant ), the major organs are the liver, the gallbladder, and a portion of the colon. Most of the liver lies in this quadrant, almost entirely under the protection of the 8th to 12th ribs. The liver fills the entire anteroposterior depth”
of the abdomen in this quadrant. Therefore, the liver is at risk for injuries in this area
right upper quadrant (RUQ)
In the___, the major organs are the stomach, the spleen, and a portion of the colon. The spleen is almost entirely under the protection of the left rib cage, whereas the stomach may sag well down into the left lower quadrant when full. The spleen lies in the lateral and posterior portion of this quadrant, under the diaphragm and immediately in front of the 9th to 11th ribs. The spleen is frequently injured, especially when these ribs are fractured
left upper quadrant (LUQ)
The___ contains two portions of the large intestine: the cecum, the first portion into which the small intestine (ileum) opens, and the ascending colon. The appendix is a small, tubular structure that is attached to the lower border of the cecum. In the left lower quadrant (LLQ) lie the descending and the sigmoid portions of the colon
right lower quadrant (RLQ)
In the___ lie the descending and the sigmoid portions of the colon.
Several organs lie in more than one quadrant. The small intestine, for instance, occupies the central part of the abdomen around the umblicus, and parts of it lie in all four quadrants. The pancreas lies just behind the abdominal cavity on the posterior abdominal wall in both upper quadrants. The large intestine also traverses the abdomen, beginning in the RLQ and ending in the LLQ as it passes through all four quadrants. The urinary bladder lies just behind the pubic symphysis in the middle of the abdomen and, therefore, lies in both lower quadrants and also in the pelvis
left lower quadrant (LLQ)
The kidneys and pancreas are called_____ organs because they lie behind the abdominal cavity (FIGURE 6-39)
They are above the level of the umbilicus, extending from the 11th rib to the third lumbar vertebra on each side. The kidneys are approximately 5 inches (13 cm) long and lie just anterior to the costovertebral angle, which is the junction between the posterior aspect of the lower portion of the rib cage and the spine.
retroperitoneal
The ___ consists of the lips, cheeks, gums, teeth, and tongue. A mucous membrane lines the mouth. The roof of the mouth is formed by the hard and soft palates. The hard palate is a bony plate lying anteriorly; the soft palate is a fold of mucous membrane and muscle that extends posteriorly from the hard palate into the throat. The soft palate is designed to hold food that is being chewed within the mouth and to help initiate swallowing.
Mouth
There are two sets of __ glands, one set on each side of the mouth under the tongue, and the other set in front of each ear. They produce nearly 1.5 L of saliva daily. Saliva is approximately 98% water. The remaining 2% is composed of mucus, salts, and organic compounds. Saliva serves as a binder for the chewed food that is being swallowed and as a lubricant within the mouth. Saliva also contains certain digestive enzymes
salivary
The___ is a tubular structure that extends vertically from the back of the mouth to the esophagus and trachea. An automatic movement of the pharynx during swallowing lifts the larynx to permit the epiglottis to close over it so that liquids and solids are moved into the esophagus and away from the trachea
oropharynx
The___ is a collapsible tube about 10 inches (25 cm) long that extends from the end of the pharynx to the stomach and lies just anterior to the spinal column in the chest. Contractions of the muscle in the wall of the ___ propel food through it to the stomach. Liquids pass with very little assistance.
esophagus
The___ is a hollow organ located in the left upper quadrat of the abdominal cavity, largely protected by the lower left ribs. Muscular contractions in the wall of the ___ and gastric juice, which contains a lot of mucus, convert ingested food to a thoroughly mixed semisolid mass, called chyme. The ___ produces approximately 1.5 L of gastric juice daily for this process. The primary function of the ___ is to receive food in large quantities intermittently, store it, and provide for its movement into the small bowel in regular, small amounts. In 1 to 3 hours, the semisolid food mass derived from one meal is propelled by muscular contraction into the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine
stomach
The __, a flat, solid organ, lies below and behind the liver and stomach and behind the peritoneum. It is firmly fixed In position, deep within the abdomen, and is not easily damaged. It contains two kinds of glands, and the two portions of the ___ are intertwined. One portion is exocrine, and it secretes nearly 2 L of pancreatic juice daily. This juice contains many enzymes that aid in the digestion of fat, starch, and protein. Pancreatic juice flows directly into the duodenum through the pancreatic ducts. The other portion of the gland —the islets of Langerhansis endocrine. These islets are where insulin and glucagon (hormones) are produced. Insulin and glucagon regulate the amount of glucose in the blood.
pancreas
The ___ is a large, solid organ that takes up most of the area immediately beneath the diaphragm in the right upper quadrant and also extends into the left upper quadrant. It is the largest solid organ in the abdomen and has several functions. Poisonous substances produced by digestion are brought to the ___ and rendered harmless. Factors that are necessary for blood clotting and for the production of normal plasma are formed here. Between 0.5 and 1 L of bile is made by the liver daily to assist in the normal digestion of fat. The ____ is the primary organ for the storage of sugar or starch for immediate use by the body for energy. It also produces many of the factors that aid in the proper regulation of immune responses. The ___ is fragile and, because of its size, relatively easily injured. Blood flow in the ___ is high, because all of the blood that is pumped to the gastrointestinal tract passes into the liver, through the portal vein, before it returns to the heart. In addition, the l___ has a generous arterial blood supply of its own. Ordinarily, approximately 25% of the cardiac output of blood (1.5 L) passes through the ____ each minute.
Liver
The liver connects with the intestine by way of the___. The gallbladder is a small pouch extending from the ____ that serves as a reservoir and concentrating organ for bile produced in the liver. Together, the ___ and the gallbladder form the biliary system. The gallbladder discharges stored and concentrated bile into the duodenum through the common bile duct. The presence of food in the duodenum triggers a contraction of the gallbladder to empty it. The gallbladder usually contains about 60 to 90 mL of bile.
bile ducts
A sac on the undersurface of the liver that collects bile from the liver and discharges it into the duodenum through the common bile duct
Gallbladder
The____ is the major hollow organ of the abdomen. The cells lining the ___ produce enzymes and mucus to aid in digestion. Enzymes from the pancreas and the ____ carry out the final processes of digestion.
More than 90% of the products of digestion (amino acids, fatty acids, and simple sugars), together with water, ingested vitamins, and minerals, are absorbed across the wall of the lower end of the small intestine into veins to be transported to the liver. The _____ is composed of the duoderum, the jejunum, and the ileum. The duodenum, which is about 12 inches (30 cm) long, is the part of the small intestine that receives food from the stomach. Here, food is mixed with secretions from the pancreas and liver for further digestion. Bile, produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder, is emptied as needed into the duodenum. Bile is green-black, but through changes during digestion, it gives feces its typical brown color, Its major function is in the digestion of fat. The jejunum and ileum together measure more than 20 feet (6 m) on average to make up the rest of the _____
small intestine
The____, another major hollow organ, consists of the cecum, the colon, and the rectum. About 5 feet (1.5 m) long, it encircles the outer border of the abdomen around the small bowel. The major function of the colon, the portion of the large intestine that extends from the cecum to the rectum, is to absorb the final 5% to 10% of digested food and water from the intestine to form solid stool, which is stored in the rectum and passed out of the body through the anus.
large intestine
Recall that the___ is a tube that opens into the cecum (the first part of the large intestine) in the right lower quadrant of the abdomen. It is 3 to 4 inches (8 to 10 cm) long and may easily become obstructed and, as a result, inflamed and infected.
Appendicitis, which is the term for this inflammation, is one of the major causes of severe abdominal distress
appendix
The lowermost end of the colon is the___. It is a large, hollow organ that is adapted to store quantities of feces until it is expelled. At its terminal end is the anus, a 2-inch (5-cm) canal lined with skin. The rectum and anus are supplied with a complex series of circular muscles, called sphincters, that control, voluntarily and automatically, the escape of liquids, gases, and solids from the digestive tract. TABLE 6-11 provides a summary of the organs and functions of the digestive system.
rectum
Substances designed to speed up the rate of specific biochemical reactions
Enzymes
____is a thin, straw-colored fluid that transports materials from the lymph tissue into the central venous circulation via the thoracic ducts. Lymph vessels form a network throughout the body. Lymph nodes are located in various places along the lymph vessels in the body. These tiny, oval-shaped structures filter lymph
Together with the circulatory system, the lymphatic system helps to rid the body of toxins and other harmful materials The spleen also plays an important role in the body’s immune function. It houses immune cells that help eliminate infectious agents.
Lymph
A passive circulatory system in the body that transports a plasma like liquid called lymph , a thin fluid that bathes the tissues of the body
Lymphatic system
The tubes that connect each ovary with the uterus and are primary location for fertilization of the ovum
Fallopian tubes
The muscular organ where the fetus grows; also called the womb;responsible for contractions during labor
Uterus
The female reproductive system consists of the
Ovaries
Fallopian tubes
Uterus
Cervix
Vagina
Cells use oxygen to turn available nutrients into chemical energy through the biochemical process of
Metabolism
Metabolism that can proceed only in the presence of oxygen
Aerobic metabolism
When cells function with oxygen, they use____ metabolism
• They generate large amounts of ATP (cellular energy) and produce wastes of carbon dioxide and water.
aerobic
• When cells function without oxygen, they use___ metabolism.
• They generate small amounts of ATP (cellular energy) and produce lactic acid as waste.
anaerobic
A metabolic by-product of the breakdown of glucose that accumulates when metabolism
proceeds in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic metabolism).
Lactic acid
Cells are surrounded by fluid that allows for easy movement of nutrients and wastes. A physical property of this fluid that
is a critical factor for cell survival is___, which is the measure of acidity or alkalinity in a solution. Solutions that are high in__ (>7.0) are considered alkaline. A common example is soap. Solutions that are low in___ (<7.0) are considered acidic. Sulfuric acid in automotive batteries is one example. A solution that is neither acidic nor alkaline is considered neutral (__7.0). The body’s cells want to exist in a near-neutral environment.
pH
The blood and lungs interact continuously to help to maintain the pH level in the body by controlling the level of carbon dioxide, and therefore the level of carbonic acid, in the blood. If the blood becomes acidic, the respiratory centers in the brainstem will_____ breathing to “blow off” more carbon dioxide. If too much carbon dioxide is blown off, then the body can become too alkaline, which is what happens during hyperventilation.
Increase
The ___system controls the production and release of hormones in the body
Endocrine
The __system is tightly controlled with primary and secondary feedback loops to keep body systems in balance
Endocrine system
Excesses or deficiencies in hormone levels cause various diseases. With endocrine diseases, specific body functions are increased, decreased, or absent. Type 1___\ is a common endocrine condition. Because production of the hormone insulin is deficient, the body is unable to use glucose normally. Glucose is the primary fuel of the body. Insulin is responsible for rapidly moving glucose into cells; without insulin, glucose moves slowly. Inis creates a senes or complications as the body struggles to find a more readily available fuel for its cells. People with diabetes begin to burn fats and proteins to create the glucose that cells require. Interestingly, the end result is higher and higher blood glucose levels as glucose accumulates, unable to be efficiently moved into the cells.
diabetes mellitus
Endocrine glands located on top of the kidneys that release adrenaline when
simulated by the sympatetic nervous system
Adrenal glands
The____ controls the discharge of certain waste materials filtered from the blood by the kidneys. In the ___, the kidneys are solid organs; the ureters, bladder, and urethra are hollow organs (FIGURE 6-42). The main functions of the _____ are (1) to control fluid balance in the body, (2) to filter and eliminate wastes, and (3) to control pH
urinary system
_____is the inability of the body to move gas effectively, which can result in a decreased level of oxygen in the body (hypoxia), an elevated level of carbon dioxide in the body (hypercapnia), or both. Recall the two concepts of breathing: ventilation and respiration. Ventilation is the movement of air between the lungs and environment, whereas respiration is the process of gas exchange.____ results when one of these functions is impaired.
Respiratory compromise
A change in the atmosphere can interfere with a person’s ability to breathe. The air you breathe is Aaaaoxygen, and the air you exhale is___ oxygen. This means there is only a 5% margin of safety for oxygen concentration in the air you breathe. In certain situations-for example, in a fire oxygen is displaced by another gas. When there iS insufficient oxygen in the air, insufficient oxygen is inhaled. That means there is less oxygen in the alveol! to diffuse into the blood that passes by the lungs. If the cells of the body do not have enough oxygen delivered to them, they will not be able to function normally Respiration can also be impaired at high altitudes. At high altitudes, gas pressures change. The low atmospheric pressure of oxygen at high altitudes can impair oxygen movement into the blood.
21%
16%
There are two ways to express the amount of oxygen in the air: as a straight percentage or as a fraction of the inspired oxygen (____).
_____Is expressed as the decimal equivalent of the percentage of oxygen being delivered. Therefore, because oxygen makes up 21% of ambient room air, the FIO, of ambient room air is 0.21. The oxygen from a nonrebreathing mask at 15 L/min is approximately 90%; therefore, the FlO2 of the air from a nonrebreather mask at 15 L/min is approximately 0.9.
FIO2
One way to describe respiratory function and therefore to understand respiratory compromise is the____ This measurement, also called the v’o ratio, describes how much gas is being moved effectively (ventilation) through the lungs and how much blood is flowing around the alveoli where gas exchange (perfusion) occurs. A mismatch occurs when one of those two variables is abnormal.
ventilation/perfusion ratio. V/Q ration
Shock resulting from lack of blood volume circulating blood volume is inadequate to deliver sufficient oxygen and nutrients to the body
Hypovolemic
Shock associated with impaired heart function .Compromised heart function prevents wastes and nutrients from moving around the body effectively
Cardiogenic
Shock resulting from blocked blood flow back to or through the heart
Obstructive
Shock resulting from severe allergic reaction
Anaphylactic
Shock resulting from severe infection. Blood vessels dilate and decreased blood pressure results; leads to dysfunction in multiple organ systems and death
Septic
Shock resulting from injury to the nervous system. For example , spinal cord injury may result in dilation of vessels (vasodilation) below the level of the injury
Neurogenic
The amount of air (in milliliters) that is moved into or out of the lungs during one breath.
Tidal volume
The glands that secrete sweat,located in the dermal layer of the skin
Sweat glands
A sticky, yellow fluid that carries the blood cells and nutrients and transports cellular waste material to the organs of excretion
Plasma
The group of bones situated between the lower leg bones (ie,tibia and fibula) and metatarsal bones of the shoot
Tarsals
The major artery that supplies blood to the head and brain
Carotid artery
The volume of blood pumped forward with each ventricular contraction
Stroke volume
The middle and thickest layer of tissue of a blood vessel wall,composed of elastic tissue and smooth muscle cells that allow the vessel to expand or contract in response to changes in blood pressure and tissue demand
Tunica media
One of the three major subdivisions of the brain, sometimes called the little brains;coordinates the various activities of the brain, particularly fine body movements
Cerebellum
The heel bone
Calcaneus
The artery just behind the medial malleolus; supplies blood to the foot
Posterior tibial artery
The proximal end of the femur,articulating with the acetabulum to form the hip joint
Femoral head
A tubular structure that extends vertically from the back of the mouth to the esophagus and trachea
Oropharynx
The major vessel in the upper extremities that supplies blood to the arm
Brachial artery
The depression on the lateral pelvis where it’s three component bones join,in which the femoral head fits snugly
Acetabulum
An organ that lies below the midbrain and above the medulla and contains numerous important nerve fibers, including those for sleep, respiration, and the medullary respiratory center.
Pons
Substances formed in specialized organs or glands and carried to another organ or group of cells in the same organism; they regulate many body functions, including metabolism, growth, and body temperature.
Hormones
The portion of the digestive tube between the stomach and the cecum, consisting of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
Small intestine
The chest cavity that contains the heart,lungs,esophagus,and great vessels
Thorax
The linings of body cavities and passages that communicate directly or indirectly with the environment outside the body
Mucous membranes
Tiny,oval shaped structures located in various places along the lymph vessels that filter lymph
Lymph nodes
The substance that leaves the stomach. It is a combination of all of the eaten foods with added stomach acids
Chyme
A bony prominence on the proximal lateral side of the thigh, just below the hip joint
Greater trochanter
The serous membranes covering the lungs and lining the thorax, completely enclosing a potential space known as the pleural space.
Pleura
Extensions of a neuron that carry impulses away from the nerve cell body to the dendrites (receivers) of another neuron.
Axons
Muscle that is attached to bones and usually crosses at least one joint; striated, or voluntary, muscle.
Skeletal muscle
A thin, straw-colored fluid that carries oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to the cells and carries waste products of metabolism away from the cells and back into the capillaries so that they may be excreted.
Lymph
One of three bones that fuse to form the pelvic ring
Pubis
The wavelike contraction of smooth muscle by which the ureters or other tubular organs propel their contents
Peristalsis
Nerves that carry information from the central nervous system to the muscles of the body
Motor nerves
The deepest layer of the epidermis ,where new skin cells are formed
Germinal layer
The major artery of the thigh, a continuation of the external iliac artery. It supplies blood to the lower abdominal wall, external genitalia, and legs. It can be palpated in the groin area.
Femoral artery
The part of the autonomic nervous system that controls vegetative functions such as digestion of food and relaxation.
Parasympathetic nervous system
The lower part of the back, formed by the lowest five nonfused vertebrae; also called the dorsal spine.
Lumbar
The use of muscles of the chest, back, and abdomen to assist in expanding the chest; occurs when air movement is impaired.
Labored breathing
An imaginary plane where the body is divided into front and back parts
Coronal plane
The supporting structure for the legs,which serves to connect the legs to the axial skeleton
Pelvic girdle
The largest part of the three subdivisions of the brain, sometimes called the gray matter; made up of several lobes that control movement, hearing, balance, speech, visual perception, emotions, and personality.
Cerebrum
The pressure of water against the walls of its container
Hydrostatic pressure
A neurotransmitter and drug sometimes used in the treatment of shock; produces vasoconstriction through its alpha-stimulator properties.
Norepinephrine
The amount of air that can be exhaled following a normal exhalation; average volume is about 1,200 mL in the average adult man.
Expiratory reserve volume
The pressure that the blood exerts against the walls of the arteries as it passes through them.
Blood pressure
Portions of the nervous system that, when stimulated, can cause constriction of blood vessels.
Alpha-adrenergic receptors
A small, hollow tube that carries urine from the kidneys to the bladder.
Ureter
The air that remains in the lungs after maximal expiration
Residual volume
The supporting structure for the arms, which attaches the arms to the axial skeleton. It comprises the clavicles and scapulae; also called the shoulder girdle.
Pectoral girdle
A hard, bony, and cartilaginous prominence found at the midline in the lowermost portion of the abdomen where the two halves of the pelvic ring are joined by cartilage at a joint with minimal motion.
Pubic symphysis
The biochemical processes that result in production of energy from nutrients within the cells ;also called cellular respiration
Metabolism
The canal that conveys urine from the bladder to outside the body
Urethra
A set of chemical reactions that supplies cells with energy.
Includes both anaerobic and aerobic metabolism.
Cellular metabolism
Endocrine glands located on top of the kidneys that release adrenaline when stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system.
Adrenal glands
The outermost or dead layer of skin
Stratum corneum
The hip bones
Coxae (singular: coxa)
The complex message and control system that integrates many body functions ,including the release of hormones
Endocrine system
The portion of the circulatory system outside of the heart and lungs
Systemic circulation
Nerve tissue that is continuous inferiorly with the spinal cord; serves as a conduction pathway for ascending and descending nerve tracts; coordinates heart rate, blood vessel diameter, breathing, swallowing, vomiting, coughing, and sneezing.
Medulla oblongata
An abnormally high level of carbon dioxide in the bloodstream;also called hypercarbia
Hypercapnia
An oxygen carrying protein found in red blood cells
Hemoglobin
The portion of the digestive tube that encircles the abdomen around the small bowel, consisting of the cecum, the colon, and the rectum. It helps regulate water balance and eliminate solid waste.
Large intestine
The bone in the thumb side of the forearm
Radius
Thin bands of fibrous tissue that attach to the calves in the heart and prevent them from inverting
Chordae tendineae
The controlling organ of the body and center of consciousness; functions include perception, control of reactions to the environment, emotional responses, and judgment.
Brain
Portions of the nervous system that, when stimulated, can cause an increase in the force of contraction of the heart, an increased heart rate, and bronchial dilation.
Beta-adrenergic receptors
Two retroperitoneal organs that excrete the end products of metabolism as urine and regulate the body’s salt and water content.
Kidneys
The lowermost end of the colon
Rectum
The flow of blood from the right ventricle through the pulmonary arteries and all of their branches and capillaries in the lungs and back to the left atrium through the venules and pulmonary veins; also called the lesser circulation.
Pulmonary circulation
The part of the nervous system that controls the involuntary activities of the body such as the heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion of food.
Autonomic nervous system
The first part of the large intestine ,into which the ileum opens
Cecum
The part of the nervous system that regulates activities over which there is voluntary control
Somatic nervous system
One of the three bones that fuse to form the pelvic ring
Ilium
The process of exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide
Respiration
The study of living organisms and their parts
Physiology
The space in between the cells
Interstitial space
Behind the abdominal cavity
Retroperitoneal
The contraction,or period of contraction,of the heart,especially that of the ventricles
Systole
A male genital gland that contains specialized cells that produce hormones and sperm
Testicle
One of the three bones that make up the pelvic ring;consists of five fused sacral vertebrae
Sacrum
The inability of the body to move gas effectively
Respiratory compromise
The part of the brain that is responsible for helping to regulate the level of consciousness
Midbrain
The breastbone
Sternum
The pressure of water to move, typically into the capillary, as the result of the presence of plasma proteins.
Oncotic pressure
A small, tubular structure that is attached to the lower border of the cecum in the lower right quadrant of the abdomen.
Appendix
Muscles that encircle and, by contracting, constrict a duct, tube, or opening. Examples are found within the rectum, bladder, and blood vessels.
Sphincters
A rounded bony prominence on either side of the ankle; also called the ankle bone.
Malleolus
An imaginary vertical line drawn from the middle of the forehead through the nose and the umbilicus (navel) to the floor, dividing the body into equal left and right halves.
Midsagittal plane
The bones and voluntary muscles of the body
Musculoskeletal system
A thin sheet of fascia that connects the thyroid and cricoid cartilages that make up the larynx.
Cricothyroid membrane
Glands that produce an oily substance called sebum, which discharges along the shafts of the hairs.
Sebaceous glands
The primary female reproductive organs that produce an ovum, or egg, that, if fertilized, will develop into a fetus.
Ovaries
A sac on the undersurface of the liver that collects bile from the liver and discharges it into the duodenaim through the common bile duct.
Gallbladder
A cone-shaped area that collects urine from the kidneys and funnels it through the ureter into the bladder.
Renal pelvis
The wave of pressure created as the heart contracts and forces blood out the left ventricle and into the major arteries.
Pulse
A small gland that surrounds the male urethra where it emerges from the urinary bladder; it secretes a fluid that is part of the ejaculatory fluid.
Prostate gland
The tiny blood vessels between the arterioles and venules that permit transfer of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and waste between body tissues and the blood.
Capillary vessels
The resistance that blood must overcome to be able to move within the blood vessels; related to the amount of dilation or constriction in the blood vessel.
Systemic vascular resistance
Involuntary muscle; it constitutes the bulk of the gastrointestinal tract and is present in nearly every organ to regulate automatic activity.
Smooth muscle
Substances designed to speed up the rate of specific biochemical reactions
Enzymes
The upper quarter of the sternum
Manubrium
The artery on the anterior surface of the foot between the first and second metatarsals.
Dorsalis pedis artery
The quadrangular bones of the cheek, articulating with the frontal bone, the maxillae, the zygomatic processes of the temporal bone, and the great wings of the sphenoid bone.
Zygomas
The tubes that connect each ovary with the uterus and are the primary location for fertilization of the ovum.
Fallopian tubes
Tough elastic structures between adjoins vertebrae that act as shock absorbers
Intervertebral disks
The main artery leaving the left side of the heart and carrying freshly oxygenated blood to the body
Aorta
The nucleotide involved in energy metabolism;used to store energy
Adenosine triphosphate
The amount of air that can be inhaled after a normal inhalation; the amount of air that can be inhaled in addition to the normal tidal volume.
Inspiratory reserve volume
A measure of the volume of blood circulated by the heart in 1 minute, calculated by multiplying the stroke volume by the heart rate.
Cardiac output
The part of the nervous system that consists of 31 pairs of spinal nerves and 12 pairs of cranial nerves; these may be sensory nerves, motor nerves, or connecting nerves.
Peripheral nervous system
The space within a cell or cells
Intracellular space
Tissue, largely fat, that lies directly under the dermis and serves as an insulator of the body.
Subcutaneous tissue
The small organs that produce hair
Hair follicles
