Ch.6 Memory Flashcards
memory
active system that receives information from the senses, puts it into a usable form, and organizes it as it stores it away, and then retrieves it from storage
processes of memory
encoding, storage, retrieval
information processing model
assumes information for memory is processed similarly to a computer; data encoded to be read
parallel distributed processing (PDP) model
creation & storage of memories taking place across a series of mental networks “stretched” across the brain (network of neural connections); memory is a simultaneous process
3-stage process of memory
sensory–>short-term–>long-term
sensory memory
1st stage of memory where information enters the nervous system through the sensory systems (i.e. eyes, ears, skin)
iconic sensory memory
visual sensory memory, lasting a fraction of a second; helps the visual system to view surroundings as continuous and stable in spite of saccadic movements
masking
information has entered iconic memory will be pushed out very quickly by new information
eidetic imagery
ability to access a visual memory for 30 seconds or more
echoic sensory memory
brief memory of something a person has just heard; info that’s heard but not understood; info held long enough until brain decides if message is important
–> duration: 4 sec
short-term memory
information is held for brief periods of time while being used
selective attention
ability to focus on one stimulus from among all sensory input
working memory
active system that processes the information in short-term memory
chunking
process of recording or reorganizing to “find” the STM; combines info into meaningful units/chunks so that more information can be held
long-term memory
memory system into which all info is placed to be kept more or less permanently; unlimited capacity
–> maintenance rehearsal
–> physical change in the amygdala
–> info encoded in meaningful form
nondeclarative or procedural LTM
Memory for skills, procedures, habits, conditioned responses
-emotional association
-implicit memory: not easily retrieved into conscious awareness
declarative LTM
LTM containing info that is conscious and known
-semantic & episodic
semantic
LTM of general knowledge (I.e. language in formal education)
–> Info stored in brain in a connected fashion, with concepts physically closer to each other
episodic
LTM where personal info not readily available & is updated & revised constantly
encoding specificity
connection between surrounding & remembered info
state-dependent learning
memories formed during a particular physiological or psychological state will be easier to remember while in a similar state
retrieval cue
a stimulus for remembering
Memory is defined as an active system that consists of three processes. They are _________.
receiving information from the senses, organizing and storing the information, and retrieving the information from storage
Which model of memory is most similar in conceptualization to the way computers function?
information-processing model
The fleeting images we see as we look out the car window occur in _________.
sensory memory
According to Baddeley, which memory system is best conceived of as three interrelated systems: central executive, visual sketchpad, and auditory recorder?
working memory
Bits of information are combined into meaningful units so that more information can be held in short-term memory through the process of _________.
chunking
Maintenance rehearsal is defined as _________.
repeating some bit of information over and over in one’s head in order to maintain it in short-term memory
elaborative rehearsal
method of transferring information
from STM to LTM by making that
information meaningful in some way.
–>Connect new info with something well-
known. (i.e. learning foreign language)
–>Deeper kind of rehearsal.
–>Better long-term storage.
The portion of memory that is more or less permanent is called____________
long-term memory
Which type of long-term memory is most difficult to bring into conscious awareness?
procedural/non-declarative
In the game show Jeopardy! contestants are tested on general information. The type of memory used to answer these kinds of questions is _________.
semantic
Explain the process of long-term memory, including nondeclarative and declarative forms.
*Long-term memory is the system in which memories that are to be kept more or less permanently are stored and is unlimited in capacity and relatively permanent in duration.Information that is more deeply processed, or processed according to meaning, will be retained and retrieved more efficiently.
*Nondeclarative, or implicit, memories are memories for skills, habits, and conditioned responses. Declarative, or explicit, memories are memories for general facts and personal experiences and include both semantic memories and episodic memories.
*Implicit memories are difficult to bring into conscious awareness, whereas explicit memories are those that a person is aware of possessing.
*LTM is organized in the form of semantic networks, or nodes of related information spreading out from a central piece of knowledge.
Describe short-term memory, and differentiate it from working memory
Short-term memory is where information is held while it is conscious and being used. It holds about three to five items of information and lasts about 30 seconds without rehearsal.
–>Whereas STM refers to simple storage of information, working memory involves manipulation of the information within STM; working memory consists of three interrelated systems: a central executive, a visuospatial sketchpad, and a phonological loop.
*STM can be lost through failure to rehearse, decay, interference by similar information, and the intrusion of new information into the STM system, which pushes older information out.
Identify the effects of cues on memory retrieval.
*Retrieval cues are words, meanings, sounds, and other stimuli that are encoded at the same time as a new memory.
*Encoding specificity occurs when context-dependent information becomes encoded as retrieval cues for specific memories.
*State-dependent learning occurs when physiological or psychological states become encoded as retrieval cues for memories formed while in those states.
recall
type of memory retrieval in which the information to be retrieved must be “pulled” out of memory with few or no cues
recognition
matching info w/ facts
serial position effect (primacy or recency effect)
when the first items and the last items in a list of information are recalled more efficiently than items in the middle of the list
automatic encoding
tendency for certain kinds of info to enter long-term memory with little or no effort encoding
constructive processing
memory retrieval process in which memories are “built” or reconstructed from info stored during encoding
misinformation effect
happens when person’s recall of episodic memories becomes less accurate because of post-event info
hindsight bias (knew-it-all-along effect)
tendency of people to overestimate ability to predict an outcome that couldn’t possibly have been predicted
–>after something happens, we feel we already knew what was going to happen
false memory syndrome
creation of false memories through the suggestion of others, often while the person is under hypnosis
–> individuals are given info that helps them believe the event happened
–> events remembered must be plausible
false positive
error of recognition in which people think
that they recognize some stimulus that is not
actually in memory
flashbulb memories
automatic encoding that occurs because an
unexpected event has strong emotional
association for the person remembering it
emotional reactions stimulate release of
hormones that enhance formation of LTM.
(adrenal medulla – epinephrine & adrenal
cortex – cortisol)
memory trace decay theory
when the passage of time leads to disuse of memories
memory trace : physical change in the brain that occurs when a memory is
formed.
decay : Loss of memory due to the passage of time.–> In LTM, decay is usually called DISUSE
interference theory
memory though available cannot be accessed because other information
interferes.
proactive interference
memory retrieval problem; occurs when older information prevents or interferes
with the retrieval of newer information. (i.e. Name of new employee)
retroactive interference
memory retrieval problem; newer information prevents or interferes with the
retrieval of older information. (Small to big computer then back to small again?)
Engram (physical aspect of memory)
physical change that takes place in the brain when a memory is
formed.
Prefrontal cortex & Temporal lobe
storage of STM
(Frontal lobe) semantic and episodic LTM
consolidation
changes that take place in the structure and functioning of
neurons when an engram is formed.
*increase in neural connections
retrograde amnesia
loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards
–>lost past.
anterograde amnesia
inability to form new memories. could be
temporary as in concussion.
–> senile dementia
infantile amnesia
Inability to retrieve memories from much before
age 3
autobiographical memory
Memory for events and facts
related to one’s personal life story.
