Ch. 8 Development Flashcards
human development
scientific study of the changes that occur in people as they age from conception until death
nature vs. nurture
heredity, the influence of inherited characteristics on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions VS. the influence of the environment on all of those same things (i.e. parenting styles, physical surroundings, economic factors)
cross-sectional design
diff participants of various ages are compared at one point in time to determine age-related differences
longitudinal design
same participants are studied at various ages to determine age-related changes
–>cohort effect
cross-sequential design
diff participants of various ages are compared to several points in time to determine age-related differences AND age-related changes
Behavioral genetics methods
study that focuses on nature vs nurture, established causal relationships b/ween genes and behavior
cohort effect
impact on development that occurs when a group of people share a common time period or common life experience
genetics
science of heredity
DNA
molecule containing genetic material, made up of sequences of amines (genes)
amines
organic structures that contain the genetic codes for building the proteins that make up organic life (hair coloring, muscle, and skin, for example) and that control the life of each cell.
chromosomes
tightly wound strands of DNA
–> 23 from each parent
–> 22 autosomes determine characteristics, 1 determines gender
dominant gene
gene that actively controls a trait’s expression
recessive gene
gene that only influences a trait expression when paired with an identical gene
polygenic inheritance
all traits controlled by more than one pair of genes
zygote
fertilized egg cell that divides into many cells and forms the baby
Monozygotic twins
formed when the zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which will develop into a baby identical to the other.
Dizygotic twins
formed when the mother’s body releases multiple eggs and at least two are fertilized or when another ovulation occurs even though the mother has already become pregnant.
3 stages of prenatal development
germinal (first 2 weeks of pregnancy where cells move into uterus) , embryonic (2-8 weeks when vital organs and structures of the baby form), fetal (9 weeks-birth where tremendous growth occurs, length and weight increase, and organs continue to become fully functional)
4 critical areas of newborn adjustment
respiration, digestion, circulation, and temperature regulation
reflexes
innate involuntary behavior that allows infants to interact w/ the environment (grasping, startle/moro, rooting, stepping, sucking)
sensory development (most developed to least function)
touch, smell, taste, hearing, vision (poor color perception until 6 mos)
Synaptic pruning
unused synaptic connections and nerve cells are cleared away to make way for functioning connections and cells
Piaget’s 4 stages of cognitive development
Sensorimotor: Children form schemes (mental concepts) as they experience new situations and events
Preoperational: Assimilation—children learn new things in terms of schemes they already possess
Concrete operations: Accommodation
Formal operations: Altering and adjusting old schemes to fit new information and experiences
Vygotsky’s The Importance of Being There
Role of others in cognitive development
Emphasized on social interactions
Scaffolding –> more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, reducing the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable
Stages of Language Development
1.Cooing (2 mos)
2.Babbling (6 mos)
3. One-word speech (before 1 yr)
4. Holophrase—whole phrase in 1 word
5. Telegraphic speech (1.5 yrs)
6.Whole sentences
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Difference b/ween what a child can do alone and what the child can do with the help of a teacher
Temperament
behavioral characteristics that are fairly well-established at birth
Easy—regular schedule, adaptable, happy, easily soothed when distressed
Difficult—irregular schedule, unhappy about change, loud, active, crabby
Slow to warm-up—less grumpy, quieter, slow to adapt to change
Attachment
emotional bond between an infant and primary caregiver; forms in 1st 6 mos
Secure—willing to let go of mom, happily explored going back to mom now & then. Upset when mom left, happy when she came back
Avoidant—willing to explore, did not touch base, reacts very little to mom
Ambivalent—mixed feelings; clinging & unwilling; welcomed mom but pushed her away
Disorganized-disoriented—not decided how to react; approach mom but eyes turned away
Mom’s behavior affect infant’s attachment
Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
Stages –> 1st yr of life, 2nd year, 3rd-5th, 6th yr-puberty, adolescence, early adulthood, middle age, aging yrs
Crisis–> 1) trust vs. mistrust, 2) autonomy vs. doubt, 3) initiative vs. guilt, 4) industry vs. inferiority, 5) identity vs. confusion, 6) intimacy vs. isolation, 7) generativity vs. self absorption, 8) integrity vs. despair
favorable outcome–> 1)faith in env and future events, 2) sense of self control and adequacy, 3) ability to be a “self-starter”, to initiate one’s own activities, 4) ability to learn how things work, to understand and organize, 5) seeing oneself as a unique and integrated person, ) ability to make commitments to others, 6) concern for family and society in general, 7) a sense of integrity and fulfillment, 8) willingness to face death
unfavorable outcome–> 1) suspicion, fear of future events, 2) feelings of shame and self-doubt, 3) a sense of guilt and inadequacy to be one’s own, 4) a sense of inferiority at understanding & organizing, 5) confusion over who and what one really is, 6) inability to form affectionate relationship, 7) concern only for self–one’s own well being and prosperity, 8) dissatisfaction with life; despair over death
The scientific study of changes that occur in people as they age from conception to death
is called gerontology
false
A researcher who studies different age groups, or cohorts, at one time is using the cross-
sectional design
true
Nature refers to “heredity” and nurture refers to “influence from the environment.”
true
To summarize the research on “nature versus nurture,” all that people are, and all that
people become, is the product of an interaction between nature and nurture
true
Chromosomes are located on rod-shaped structures called genes
true
Most characteristics are determined by 25 pairs of chromosomes called autosomes
false; 23
Recessive genes are more active in influencing a trait
false
Klinefelter’s syndrome is a chromosome disorder resulting from an XXY pattern of the 23rd
chromosomes, causing reduced male characteristics and obesity.
true
An extra chromosome in the 20th pair results in Down Syndrome.
false; 21st
Dizygotic twins develop when a fertilized egg divides into two parts that develop into
separate embryos
false
Identical twins are also called monozygotic twins
true
The germinal period begins at conception and ends when the organism firmly attaches to
the wall of the uterus
true
Critical periods are times when the environment can influence the development of the
embryo.
true
A teratogen is any factor that can cause a birth defect
true
The most common time for a spontaneous abortion, or miscarriage, is during the third
trimester
false
Reflexes help infants to survive
true
The least functional of all the senses at birth is hearing
false; vision
After finally being able to raise the head and chest, the infant is likely to develop next the motor skill of sitting up without support, according to the six identified motor milestones
false
A scheme is a mental concept formed through experiences with objects and events
true
Conservation is the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight
false; conservation is the ability to understand that changing the appearance of something doesn’t change the nature of it
Centration is Piaget’s concept, which is the inability to see the world through another person’s eyes
false
By the time a child enters the concrete operational stage of cognitive development, he or
she is capable of grasping the concept of conservation
true
Scaffolding involves a higher skilled person helping another lesser skilled person learn a
new task. As the lesser skilled person becomes more masterful at the task, the higher
skilled person withdraws his/her help as the lesser skilled person improves at the task
true
Temperament is thought to be fairly well established since birth
true
According to Mary Ainsworth’s research on attachment, the four attachment styles are
secure, ambivalent, avoidant, and disorganized-disoriented
true
Harlow’s study involving rhesus monkeys demonstrated that contact comfort is important
in attachment.
true
In puberty, only the primary sex characteristics in the body reach their peak
false
Growth spurts for girls happen around age 12 and age 10 for boys
false; age 10 for girls and 12 for boys
The concept of a personal fable is when an adolescent believes (s)he is unique and
cannot be harmed
true
Kohlberg’s stages of moral development are concrete operational, formal operational, and
sensorimotor
false
Most people’s vision and hearing remain at peak functioning until around age 50
false
Menopause is the cessation of the menstrual cycle and ovulation
true
Andropause usually begins in the forties and is marked by a decrease in hormone
production and physical changes such as reduced sperm count
true
According to Erikson, middle adulthood is the time when individuals struggle with
generativity versus stagnation
true
A permissive, neglectful parent is often overly involved with their children.
false
The cellular clock theory of aging suggests that cells have an unlimited number of times
they can reproduce and repair damage
false
The wear-and-tear theory of aging suggests that unstable oxygen molecules cause damage
to the structure of cells, increasing with age
false
The activity theory suggests that the more involved adolescents stay in hobbies until they
turn into adults, the more likely they are to be happy
false
Elisabeth Kübler-Ross identified exactly three stages of dying: anger, depression, and
acceptance
false
Discuss the terms nature and nurture as they pertain to human development.
What is the difference between a dominant and recessive gene?
What causes Down syndrome and what are its effects?
Describe two reflexes that are present at birth.
Explain the adolescent concepts of the personal fable and imaginary audience.
**personal fable–type of thought common to adolescents where young people believe themselves to be one of a kind
–> may feel that they are somehow protected from the dangers of the world and so do not take the precautions that they should.
**imaginary audience–ype of thought common to adolescents where young people believe other people are concerned about their thoughts & characteristics; everyone is watching them & they’re at the center of everyone else’s world (intense self-consciousness)
Explain the terms climacteric, perimenopause, and menopause.
climacteric–gradual changes of ovarian function that start before menopause and continue after menopause for a while
perimenopause–the 5-10 yrs over which climacteric changes occur
menopause–cessation of ovulation and menstrual cycle
Explain the wear-and-tear theory of aging.
the body’s organs and cell tissues simply wear out with repeated use and abuse
–> i.e. collagen loses elasticity, skin becomes more wrinked and saggy as we age
List, in order, the five stages of dying as proposed by Kübler-Ross’s model.
denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance
Distinguish the major research methods used in the field of human development and
provide examples of each. What are the advantages and disadvantages of each?
longitudinal: one group of people is followed and assessed at different times as the group age
–>advantage: looking at real age-related changes as those changes occur in the same individuals
–> disadvantages: lengthy amount of time, money, and effort involved in following participants over the years, as well as the loss of participants when they move away, lose interest, or die.
cross-sectional: several different age groups are studied at one time
–.advantages: quick, relatively inexpensive, and easier to accomplish than the longitudinal design.
–>disadvantage is that the study no longer compares an individual to that same individual as he or she ages; instead, individuals of different ages are being compared to one another. Differences between age groups are often a problem in developmental research
cross-sequential: combo of longitudinal & cross-sectional; several diff age groups assessed at diff times
What is the critical period? What are teratogens? List four common teratogens and
discuss their effects on development.
The critical period is where harmful exposures during the first trimester have the greatest chance of causing
major birth defects
Teratogens are agents that cause an abnormality following fetal exposure during pregnancy.
Teratogens:
* Cocaine: Decreased height, low birth weight, respiratory problems, seizures, learning
difficulties; infant is difficult to soothe
* Alcohol: Fetal alcohol syndrome (intellectual disability, delayed growth, facial
malformation), learning difficulties, smaller than normal head
* Nicotine: Miscarriage, low birth weight, stillbirth, short stature, intellectual disability,
learning disabilities
* Caffeine: Miscarriage, low birth weight
Radiation Higher incidence of cancers, physical deformities
Summarize Jean Piaget’s stages of cognitive development and the major milestones
accomplished and limitations at each stage.
- Sensorimotor (birth-2)==> children explore the world using senses & movement; object permanence & understanding that concepts and mental images= people, objects, events
- Preoperational (2-7)==> children can mentally represent and refer to objects & events with words, pictures, or pretend; can’t conserve, reason, or consider many object characteristics at once
- Concrete operations (7-12)==> able to conserve, reverse thinking, and classify objects; can think logically & understand analogies (only take things literally)
- Formal operations (12-adulthood)==> abstract reasoning about hypotheticals, logical possibilities, abstract analogies, systematically examine & test hypotheses
Summarize Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development. Provide an example for
each stage that describes successful resolution of each stage.
- infant (birth-1)–learns basic sense of trust dependent upon how needs are met (trust vs. mistrust)
–> success: develop sense of trust and expect needs to be met in the future
–> limitations: develop mistrust and don’t expect needs to be met - toddler (1-3)–understand how to control own actions (autonomy vs. shame/self-doubt)
–> success: controlling own actions= develop independence
–>limitations: independence attempts blocked= sense of self-doubt & shame - preschool (3-5)–learn to take responsibility for own behavior, develop self control (initiative vs. guilt/irresponsibility/anxiety)
–>success: feel capable and develop sense of initiative
–> limitations: feel irresponsible, anxious, and develop a sense of guilt - elementary (5-12)–learn new skills in academic & social worlds and compare themselves to others to measure success or failure (industry vs. inferiority)
–> success: feel competent and improve sef-esteem
–>limitations: feel like they failed in learning skills, feel inferior to others - adolescence (13-early 20s)–must decide who they are, what they believe, and what they want (identity vs. role confusion)
–> success: stable sense of identity
–> limitations: confusion & isolation from others or try to be like everyone else (instead of adopting own identity) - early adulthood (20s-30s)–finding a person to share their identity with in an ongoing, close, personal relationship (intimacy vs. isolation)
–> success: fulfilling relationship (s) founded on psychological intimacy
–> limitations: isolation and experience loneliness, even in shallow relationships with others - middle adulthood (40s-50s)–find a way to be creative and productive to nurture next gen (generativity vs. stagnation)
–> success: have legacy for future
–> limitations: remain stagnated, self-centered, feel like they haven’t made a difference - late adulthood (60s-beyond)–coming to terms w/ end of life & acceptance of life
–> success: “let go” of regrets, sense of completion, death as last stage of full life
–> limitations: cannot let go of regrets, sense of having left things until too late; see death as too soon
Summarize Kübler-Ross’s five stages of death and dying. How are they experienced?
denial–people refuse to believe validity of diagnosis of death
anger–feeling helpless to change things, anger at death itself
bargaining–try to make a deal with doctors or God
depression–sadness from losses experienced
acceptance–quietly await death
________ refers to heredity and __________ refers to environmental influences
a. nature; nurture
b. Cognition; emotion
c. Nurture; behavioral genetics
d. Cross-sectional; longitudinal
a. nature; nurture
Which of the following is defined as a gene that controls the appearance of a certain trait?
a. recessive
b. mutated
c. recombinant
d. dominant
d. dominant
Infant reflexes are ______
a. innate involuntary behavior patterns
b. voluntary behavior patterns
c. learned
d. not used as a means for survival
a. innate involuntary behavior patterns
Christa and Sal are anticipating the birth of their first baby. Before the baby arrives, they
want to fix up the nursery with new wallpaper. They seek the advice of a developmental
psychologist. What is she likely to tell them?
a. Newborns prefer to look at complex three-dimensional patterns rather than simple one-dimensional
ones.
b. Newborns prefer to look at animals rather than people.
c. Newborns do not see well enough to make any difference.
d. Newborns prefer to look at simple one-dimensional patterns rather than complex ones
a. Newborns prefer to look at complex three-dimensional patterns rather than simple one-dimensional
ones.
A baby’s language, which consists of repetition of consonant-vowel combinations, is called
a.cooing
b. holophrasing
c. telegraphic speech
d. babbling
d. babbling
Which of Erik Erikson’s psychosocial crises revolves around the child’s learning to direct
his or her own behavior?
a. trust versus mistrust
b. initiative versus guilt
c. industry versus inferiority
d. autonomy versus shame and doubt
d. autonomy versus shame and doubt
Obedience to rules because of the fear of punishment is a characteristic of ______
a. conventional morality
b. preconventional morality
c. principled morality
d. postconventional morality
b. preconventional morality
The period of five to ten years during which a woman’s reproductive system begins to
decline is called _______
a. climacteric
b. perimenopause
c. menopause
d. postmenopause
b. perimenopause
The theory of adjustment to aging that assumes older people are happier if they remain
active in some way, such as volunteering or developing a hobby, is called _______
a. activity theory
b. wear-and-tear theory
c. disengagement theory
d. cellular clock theory
a. activity theory
The correct sequence of the five stages of death and dying postulated by Kübler-Ross is ____
a. denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance
b. denial, anger, bargaining, acceptance, and depression
c. anger, denial, bargaining, acceptance, and depression
d. anger, denial, bargaining, depression, and acceptance
a. denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance
In a __________design, one group of participants is followed and assessed as the group
ages
a. cohort
b. longitudinal
c. behavior genetics
d. cross-sectiona
b. longitudinal
A(n) ______________________ is a section of DNA containing a sequence of amines.
a. compound
b. gene
c. chromosome
d. amine
b. gene
_____ develop when two eggs each get fertilized by two different sperm,
resulting in two zygotes in the uterus at the same time
a. Monozygotic twins
b. Fraternal twins
c. Dizygotic twins
d. Wombmates
c. dizygotic twins
Which of the following describes the embryonic period?
a. the period during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant in the lining
b. the period during which the major organs and structures of the organism first develop
c. the period during which the umbilical cord develops
d. the period during which tremendous growth occurs and the organs continue to develop and become
functional
b. the period during which the major organs and structures of the organism first develop
At birth, newborns seem most responsive to ______
a. high pitches and low pitches
b. hip hop music
c. moderate voice pitches
d. rock and roll music
a. high pitches and low pitches
Piaget’s term for the knowledge that an object exists even when it is out of sight is ___
a. conservation
b. object permanence
c. centration
d. egocentrism
b. object permanence
According to Thomas and Chess, a child that is very irregular in sleeping and eating,
resists change, and tends to be loud is labeled a(n) _____________ child
a. easy
b. difficult
c. slow-to-warm-up
d. negative
b. difficult
The period of life from about age 13 to the early twenties, during which a young person is
no longer physically a child but is not yet an independent, self-supporting adult, is called
a. adolescence
b. tweens
c. young adulthood
d. puberty
a. adolescence
Jeremy is 17 years old. According to Erikson, his chief task will be acquiring a sense of___
a. identity
b. intimacy
c. generativity
d. autonomy
a. identity
According to Erikson, an emotional and psychological closeness that is based on the
ability to trust, share, and care, while still maintaining one’s sense of self, is called ____
a. bonding
b. intimacy
c. attachment
d. attraction
b. intimacy
